TABLE 2.
Summary of studies of fish oil supplementation (FS) in athletes relating to immunity and inflammation1
| Author | Sport | Athlete status | Sex and sample size | Biomarkers affected by FS | Dosing period, wk | Active treatment, mg/d | ω-3 biomarker response to FS | No effect for FS2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Andrade et al. (40) | Swimmers | Elite | Male participantsn = 20 | Resting: ↑PBMC, ↓plasma PGE2, ↓IFN-γ | 6 | 950 EPA500 DHA | ↑Plasma total ω-3 fatty acids (45.4%), EPA (196%), DHA (96%) | PBMC TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, cortisol, insulin |
| Delfan et al. (41) | Paddlers | Elite | Male participants n = 22 | Resting PBMCs: ↓TNF-α, ↓IL-1β, ↑IL-6, ↑IL-10, ↓IFN-γ | 4 | 2400 EPA1200 DHA | Not measured | IL-4, Th1/Th2 ratio |
| Santos et al. (42) | Marathon | Competitive | Male participants n = 21 | Resting: ↑lymphocyte proliferation; ↓IL-2, ↓TNF-α, ↓IL-10Postrace: ↑lymphocyte proliferation | 8.5 | 300 EPA1500 DHA | Not measured | Lymphocyte death. Postrace lymphocyte: IL-2, IL-4, TNF-α, IL-10 |
| Nieman et al. (43) | Cyclists | Competitive | Male and female participants n = 23 | 6 | 2000 EPA400 DHA | ↑Plasma EPA (311%), DHA (40%) | Total blood leukocytes, CK, CRP, ratio sIgA:protein, myeloperoxidase, IL-6, IL-8, IL-1Ra, endurance performance | |
| Da Boit et al. (44) | Athletic, nonspecific | Recreational | Male and female participants n = 30 | ↓Total number of symptom days | 16 | 550 EPA550 DHAWhey protein,Vitamin D | Not measured | URTI incidence, severity and duration of URTI, visits to medical doctor, sIgA conc. and secretion rate |
| Capó et al. (45, 46) | Soccer | Semiprofessional | Male participants n = 15 | ↓Post-ex MIP1-α. Post-ex LPS-stimulated PBMCs: ↓TNF-α, ↓IL-6, ↓TLR-4 protein concentrations↑PBMCs UCP-3, ↓GPx | 5 d/wk for 8 wk | 1140 DHACHO, Proteins,Almonds | ↑RBC DHA (36%) | Oxidative damage in PBMCs, ROS production by PBMCs. Resting and postexercise plasma: IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, VEGF, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, TNF-β, EGF, IL-5, IL-15, MCP-1, GMCSF |
| Capó et al. (47) | Soccer | Semiprofessional | Male participants n = 15 | Resting: neutrophil gene expression (IL-8, NFκB); ↑neutrophil total MPO, ↑neutrophil total CAT activity | 5 d/wk for 8 wk | 1140 DHACHO, Proteins,Almonds | ↑RBC DHA (36%) | Neutrophils: nitrate, nitrite; NO; MPO, TNF-α, gene expression (COX2, TNF-α, MPO) |
| Nieman et al. (48) | Cyclists | Competitive | Male and female participants n = 39 | Resting: serum ↓CRP, plasma IL-6, total leukocytes, ↓granulocyte oxidative burst | 24 d | 400 EPA400 DHAEGCG, Quercetin | Not measured | Plasma IL-10, IL-1Ra, TNF-α, CK, MCP, MPO, sIgA protein, HSP-70 |
| Ghiasvand et al. (19) | Basketball | Well-trained | Male participants n = 34 | Resting: ↓IL-6, ↑GPx | 6 | 2000 EPAVitamin E +/− | Not measured | No change GPx in EPA-only group |
CAT, catalase; CHO, carbohydrate; CK, creatine kinase; COX, cycloxygenase; CRP, C-reactive protein; EGCG, epigallocatechin 3-gallate; EGF, epidermal growth factor; FS, fish oil supplementation; GMCSF, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; HSP, heat-shock protein; MCP, monocyte chemotactic protein; MIP, macrophage inflammatory protein; MPO, myeloperoxidase; PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cell; ROS, reactive oxygen species; sIgA, salivary immunoglobulin A; Th1/2; T helper cell 1/2; TLR, toll-like receptor; UCP, mitochondrial uncoupling protein; URTI, upper respiratory tract illness; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.
All nonsignificant findings for the effects of FS.