TABLE 2.
Specific study characteristics of the included randomized controlled trials1
| Author, year, reference | Specification of the intervention arms (meals/d) | Specification of the intervention arms (meals/d) | Provision of food | Meals consumed in research center | Energy intake during/after intervention, kcal/d | Adherence (method) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alencar et al., 2015 (23) | 6 meals/d:Hypocaloric, 1200 kcal/d with ∼75 g/d of protein. Daily participant dietary macronutrients averaged per day 52% carbohydrates, 27% protein, and 21% fat, every 2 to 3 h. | 2 meals/d:Hypocaloric, 1200 kcal/d with ∼75 g/d of protein. Daily participant dietary macronutrients averaged per day 52% carbohydrates, 27% protein, and 21% fat, every 5 to 6 h. | Yes | No | NR | Assessed but not reported (reported during weekly meetings) |
| Antoine et al., 1984 (24) | 6 meals/d:Hypocaloric, 1200 kcal/d (feeding study) | 3 meals/d:Hypocaloric 1200 kcal/d (feeding study) | Yes | Yes | NR | Assessed but not reported (supervision during meals in clinic) |
| Arciero et al., 2013 (25) | 6 meals/d:Eucaloric (28 d), hypocaloric (28 d);35% protein, 45% carbohydrates, and 20% fat/d | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric (28 d), hypocaloric (28 d);35% protein, 45% carbohydrates, and 20% fat/d | Partly | No | 6 meals/d: 1541;3 meals/d: 1559 | Assessed but not reported (monitored through daily subject-researcher contact) |
| Arnold et al., 1993 (26) | 9 meals/d:Eucaloric; daily energy allowance was divided into early morning 8.3%, breakfast 8.3%, midmorning 8.3%, lunch 8.3%, midafternoon 8.3%, late afternoon 8.3%, dinner 16.6%, midevening 16.6%, and late evening 16.6%. Guidelines about how to allocate food into the meal or snack category were given and the nine meals were spaced between 1 and 2 h apart depending on the subject's schedule. | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric; breakfast 25%, lunch 25%, dinner 50%, and a single small snack of 150 kcal to be consumed when desired | No | No | 9 meals/d: 1995;3 meals/d: 1934 | 9 meals/d: 8.3;3 meals/d: 3.2 (3-d dietary records) |
| Arnold et al., 1994 (27) | 9 meals/d:Eucaloric; daily energy allowance was divided into early morning 8.3%, breakfast 8.3%, midmorning 8.3%, lunch 8.3%, midafternoon 8.3%, late afternoon 8.3%, dinner 16.6%, midevening 16.6%, and late evening 16.6%. Guidelines about how to allocate food into the meal or snack category were given and the 9 meals were spaced between 1 and 2 h apart depending on the subject's schedule. | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric; breakfast 25%, lunch 25%, dinner 50%, and a single small snack of 150 kcal to be consumed when desired | No | No | 9 meals/d: 1972;3 meals/d: 1898 | 9 meals/d: 7.9;3 meals/d: 3.1 (dietary records) |
| Arnold et al., 1997 (28) | 9 meals/d:Eucaloric; daily energy allowance was divided into early morning 8.3%, breakfast 8.3%, midmorning 8.3%, lunch 8.3%, midafternoon 8.3%, late afternoon 8.3%, dinner 16.6%, midevening 16.6%, and late evening 16.6%. Guidelines about how to allocate food into the meal or snack category were given and the nine meals were spaced between 1 and 2 h apart depending on the subject's schedule. | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric; breakfast 25%, lunch 25%, dinner 50%, and a single small snack of 150 kcal to be consumed when desired | No | No | NR | Assessed but not reported (regular contact between researchers and participants + dietary records) |
| Bachman and Raynor, 2012 (29) | 7–9 meals/d:Hypocaloric (1200–1500 kcal/d, <30 % from fat/d), consume at least 100 kcal every 2–3 h | 3 meals/d:Hypocaloric (1200–1500 kcal/d, <30% of kcal from fat/d) | No | No | 7–9 meals/d: 1314;3 meals/d: 1217 | Assessed but not reported (3-d food records) |
| Berteus Forslund et al., 2008 (30) | 6 meals/d:Hypocaloric (from the estimated total energy expenditure 30% was subtracted to get the prescribed energy intake). The minimum energy level prescribed was 1400 kcal/d. The prescribed energy level was divided into 3 meals and 3 snacks, daily energy intake was divided in breakfast 20%, lunch 25%, dinner 25% and 3 snacks, each snack 10% of daily energy; breakfast 20% + lunch 25% + dinner 25% + 3×10% = 100%. | 3 meals/d:Hypocaloric (from the estimated total energy expenditure 30% was subtracted to get the prescribed energy intake. The minimum energy level prescribed was 1400 kcal/d). Recommended energy intake in the group of 3 meals was divided in breakfast, 30% of daily energy intake, lunch 35%, and dinner 35% and no snacks with the exception of limited fruit intake and calorie-free drinks. | No | No | 6 meals/d: 2150;3 meals/d: 2098 | Assessed but not reported (questionnaires, telephone interviews) |
| Cameron et al., 2010 (31) | 6 meals/d:Hypocaloric: −700 kcal/d | 3 meals/d:Hypocaloric: −700 kcal/d | No | No | NR | Data not collected |
| Finkelstein and Fryer, 1971 (32) | 6 meals/d:Hypocaloric (period 1: 1700 kcal/d;period 2: 1400 kcal/d). All meals containing similar amounts of protein, carbohydrate, and fat. | 3 meals/d:Hypocaloric (period 1: 1700 kcal/d; period 2: 1400 kcal/d). All meals containing similar amounts of protein, carbohydrate, and fat. | Yes | Partly | NR | Data not collected |
| Iwao et al., 1996 (33) | 6 meals/d:Hypocaloric (1200 kcal/d), intervals of 2 h, daily percentages of carbohydrates, protein and lipids in total sources of energy were 60%, 20%, and 20% | 2 meals/d:Hypocaloric (1200 kcal/d), intervals of 12 h, daily percentages of carbohydrates, protein, and lipids in total sources of energy were 60%, 20%, and 20% | Yes | No | NR | Data not collected |
| Jenkins et al., 1995 (34) | 17 meals/d: Eucaloric (2730 kcal/d).Equal macronutrient and caloric content per meal. | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric (2730 kcal/d).Daily energy distribution: 30% breakfast, 30% lunch, and 40% dinner; 33% fat, 15% protein, and 52% carbohydrate. | Yes | Partly (for the 17-meals/d intervention: at least 1 portion/d was eaten in the study kitchen; for 3-meals/d intervention: at least 1 meal/d was eaten in the study kitchen) | NR | Assessed but not reported (food diary) |
| Kahleova et al., 2014 (35) | 6 meals/d:Hypocaloric, energy requirements were based on the formula: (resting energy expenditure × 1.5) − 500 kcal.Macronutrient distribution per day: 50–55% carbohydrates, 20–25% protein, and <30% from fat. | 2 meals/d:Hypocaloric, energy requirements were based on the formula: (resting energy expenditure × 1.5) – 500 kcal.Macronutrient distribution per day: 50–55% carbohydrates, 20–25% protein, and <30% from fat. | Partly (for one-half of the participants, equally in both groups) | No | 6 meals/d: −380;2 meals/d: −420 | Assessed but not reported (dietary records) |
| Koopman et al., 2014 (36) | 6 meals/d:Hypercaloric (40% caloric surplus on top of the ad libitum weight-maintaining diet) | 3 meals/d:Hypercaloric (40% caloric surplus on top of the ad libitum weight-maintaining diet) | Partly (additional meal, liquid meal) | No | 6 meals/d: 3614;2 meals/d: 3474 | Assessed but not reported (diet monitoring) |
| Murphy et al., 1996 (37) | 12 meals/d:Eucaloric, ∼2000 kcal/d, with a daily average 40% fat, 20% protein, and 40% carbohydrate; meals were eaten at hourly intervals from 8 h to 20 h. | 2 meals/d:Eucaloric, ∼2000 kcal/d, with a daily average 40% fat, 20% protein, and 40% carbohydrate; meals were split into 2 meals/d to be eaten at 12 h and 19:30 h. | No | No | 12 meals/d: 2020;2 meals/d: 2082 | 2 meals: 90%;12 meals: 78% |
| Papakonstantinou et al., 2016 (38) | 6 meals/d:Eucaloric, weight-maintenance diet; daily distribution: 40% carbohydrates, 25% protein, and 35% fat | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric, weight-maintenance diet; daily distribution: 40% carbohydrates, 25% protein, and 35% fat | No | No | 6 meals/d: 1916;3 meals/d: 1859 | Assessed but not reported (food records) |
| Papakonstantinou et al., 2018 (39) | 6 meals/d:Eucaloric, weight-maintenance diet; daily distribution: 40% carbohydrates, 25% protein, and 35% fat | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric, weight-maintenance diet; daily distribution: 40% carbohydrates, 25% protein, and 35% fat | No | No | 6 meals/d: 2081;3 meals/d: 1917 | Adherence to Mediterranean diet score: 32.1 from 55 |
| Perrigue et al., 2017 (40) | 8 meals/d:Eucaloric (providing all energy as evenly spaced eating occasions per day) | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric (providing all energy as evenly spaced eating occasions per day) | No | No | NR | 8 meals: 100%;3 meals: 96% |
| Schlundt et al., 1992 (41) | 3 meals/d:Breakfast; hypocaloric 1200 kcal/d.Daily distribution: 55% of energy from carbohydrates, 15–20% from protein, and 25–30% from fats. | 2 meals/d:No breakfast; hypocaloric 1200 kcal/d.Daily distribution: 55% of energy from carbohydrates, 15–20% from protein, and 25–30% from fats. | No | No | NR | Whole study group: 71% |
| Stote et al., 2007 (42) | 3 meals/d:Eucaloric (weight maintenance). Daily macronutrient distribution: 50% carbohydrates, 15% protein, 35% fats. | 1 meal/d:Eucaloric (weight maintenance; minimum fast of 20 h/d). Daily macronutrient distribution: 50% carbohydrates, 15% protein, 35% fats. | Yes | Partly (only dinner in study center) | 3 meals/d: 2429;1 meals/d: 2364 | Assessed but not reported (daily questionnaires) |
| Verboeket-van de Venne and Westerterp, 1993 (43) | 4 meals/d:Hypocaloric, 1000 kcal/d; 300 kcal/d breakfast, 300 kcal/d lunch (with option of 100 kcal/d snack), 400 kcal/d dinner (with option 100 kcal/d snack) | 2 meals/d:Hypocaloric, 1000 kcal/d, no breakfast, 400 kcal lunch, 600 kcal dinner. | No | No | 4 meals/d: 1018;2 meals/d: 1090 | Data not collected |
| Young et al., 1971 (44) | 6 meals/d:Hypocaloric, 1800 kcal/d. Daily macronutrient distribution: 115 g protein, 104 g carbohydrates, 103 g fat. | 3 meals/d:Hypocaloric, 1800 kcal/d. Daily macronutrient distribution: 115 g protein, 104 g carbohydrates, 103 g fat.1 meal/d:Hypocaloric, 1800 kcal/d. Daily macronutrient distribution: 115 g protein, 104 g carbohydrates, 103 g fat. | Yes | No | NR | Data not collected |
1
NR, not reported.