Table 1. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of 43 Participants Who Completed the Study.
| Parameter | No. (%) | P value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total (N = 43) | Sham (n = 24) | LLLT (n = 19) | ||
| Sex | ||||
| Women | 21 (48.8) | 12 (50.0) | 9 (47.4) | .864 |
| Men | 22 (51.2) | 12 (50.0) | 10 (52.6) | |
| Age, mean (SD), y | 50.49 (17.44) | 54.00 (14.68) | 46.05 (19.93) | .14 |
| Injury mechanism | ||||
| Bike/motorcycle accident | .10 | |||
| With helmet | 4 (9.3) | 4 (16.7) | 0 | |
| Without helmet | 1 (2.3) | 0 | 1 (5.3) | |
| Fall | 25 (58.1) | 14 (58.3) | 11 (57.9) | |
| Other | 1 (2.3) | 1 (4.2) | 0 | |
| Pedestrian accident with car/motorcycle/bike | 4 (9.3) | 3 (12.5) | 1 (5.3) | |
| Car crash | ||||
| Restrained | 3 (7.0) | 0 | 3 (15.8) | |
| Unrestrained | 1 (2.3) | 1 (4.2) | 0 | |
| Violence/assault | 4 (9.3) | 1 (4.2) | 3 (15.8) | |
| History | ||||
| Hypertension | 15 (34.9) | 9 (37.5) | 6 (31.6) | .69 |
| Diabetes (type 1 or 2) | 7 (16.3) | 4 (16.7) | 3 (15.8) | .94 |
| Imaging findings | ||||
| Hemorrhage | ||||
| Extracranial | 18 (41.9) | 10 (41.7) | 8 (42.1) | .98 |
| Epidural | 2 (4.7) | 0 | 2 (10.5) | .10 |
| Acute subdural | 13 (30.2) | 9 (37.5) | 4 (21.1) | .24 |
| Subarachnoid | 19 (44.2) | 13 (54.2) | 6 (31.6) | .14 |
| Edema | 1 (2.3) | 1 (4.2) | 0 (0.0) | .37 |
| Contusion | 4 (9.3) | 2 (8.3) | 2 (10.5) | .81 |
| Hemorrhage | ||||
| Intraparenchymal | 7 (16.3) | 3 (12.5) | 4 (21.1) | .45 |
| Intraventricular | 1 (2.3) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (5.3) | .26 |
| Skull fracture | 10 (23.3) | 6 (25.0) | 4 (21.1) | .76 |
| Intracranial air | 2 (4.7) | 1 (4.2) | 1 (5.3) | .87 |
| Facial fracture | 12 (27.9) | 8 (33.3) | 4 (21.1) | .38 |
| Orbital injury | 5 (11.6) | 3 (12.5) | 2 (10.5) | .84 |
| Fazekas scalea | ||||
| Periventricular white matter hyperdensities | ||||
| Absent (0) / caps or pencil-thin lining (1) | 37 (86.0) | 19 (79.2) | 18 (94.7) | .44 |
| Smooth halo (2) | 4 (9.3) | 3 (12.5) | 1 (5.3) | |
| Irregular periventricular signal extending into the deep white matter (3) | 1 (2.3) | 1 (4.2) | 0 | |
| Deep white matter hyperdensities | ||||
| Absent (0) / punctate foci (1) | 35 (81.4) | 19 (79.2) | 16 (84.2) | .64 |
| Beginning confluence (2) | 6 (14.0) | 3 (12.5) | 3 (15.8) | |
| Large confluent areas (3) | 1 (2.3) | 1 (4.2) | 0 | |
| Antiepileptic drug prophylaxis | 24 (55.8) | 14 (58.3) | 10 (52.6) | .71 |
| Therapy | ||||
| Physical | 19 (44.2) | 13 (54.2) | 6 (31.6) | .14 |
| Occupational | 13 (30.2) | 8 (33.3) | 5 (26.3) | .62 |
| Speech | 5 (11.6) | 4 (16.7) | 1 (5.3) | .25 |
| Rehabilitation | 3 (7.0) | 3 (12.5) | 0 | .11 |
| ICU stay | 3 (7.0) | 3 (12.5) | 0 | .11 |
| RPQ scores, mean (SD)b | ||||
| RPQ-3 | 4.28 (3.13) | 4.55 (3.13) | 3.94 (3.19) | .56 |
| RPQ-13 | 11.92 (8.71) | 12.64 (7.83) | 10.94 (9.98) | .56 |
| RPQ-Total | 16.21 (10.83) | 17.18 (10.01) | 14.88 (12.08) | .53 |
Abbreviations: LLLT, low-level light therapy; RPQ, Rivermead Post-Concussion Questionnaire.
a
The Fazekas scale is split into periventricular and deep white matter, and the score ranges from 0 (no disease) to 3 (the most severe disease).
b
The RPQ is a 16-item self-assessment questionnaire. Each item in the questionnaire is assessed on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (no problem) to 4 (severe problem). RPQ-3 assessment includes early, objective, and physical symptoms of TBI; RPQ-13 assessment includes later, more cognitive and behavioral symptoms.