Figure 2.

In temperate-latitude settings, climate refugia for freshwater fishes have been identified in (a) groundwater- or snowmelt-dominated systems (McKenzie River, Oregon); (b) forested watersheds with topo-graphic complexity (Great Smoky Mountains, North Carolina); and (c) alluvial aquifer connectivity and floodplain structural complexity (Upper Talarik Creek, Alaska). Processes (eg groundwater availability, seasonal snow-melt) are often interdependent, and freshwater systems associated with various landforms (eg mountains, alluvial plains) may be influenced by different processes to varying degrees.