Table 3.

Outcomes and managerial insights from OR contributions to the ripple effect and structural dynamics.

Level of Analysis	OR Methods	Outcomes	Managerial Insights
Network Level	Graph Theory	•Associations between network structures and risk propagation; •Analysis of critical network elements leading to supply chain discontinuities and collapses through cascading failure effects; •Modeling of interdependencies in SCs; •State dynamics within SC nodes; •Assessment of SC robustness and resilience to disruptions with considerations of ripple effect	•Identification of disruption propagation scenarios of different severity •Stress-testing of SC designs •Propensity of specific SC designs to disruption risk propagation •Identification of critical suppliers and facilities for maintaining SC operations •Selection and proactive enhancements of SC designs to sustain certain levels of disruption propagation and structural dynamics •Adaptation of SC designs according to environmental changes
	Complexity Theory
	Entropy
	Petri Nets
	Bayesian Networks
	Markov Chains
	Reliability Theory/Statistical Analysis
Process Level	Stochastic Optimization	•Optimal reconfigurations of material flows according to disruption propagation scenarios •Impacts of ripple effect and structural dynamics on service level and costs •Optimal re-allocation of supply and demand under conditions of disruption propagation and structural dynamics	•Stress-testing of SC production-distribution plans within differently disrupted network designs •Analysis of contingency-preparedness plans •Recovery plan selection
	Robust Optimization
	Linear/Mixed-Integer Programming
Control Level	Optimal Control	•Impacts of disruption propagation on service level, inventory levels, and costs •Time-dependent effect of disruption propagation on SC behaviors and performance in dynamics •Individual behavior of firms in SCs	•Building resilient SCs for new, post-pandemic business models •Analysis of disruption propagation in dynamics with consideration of production and inventory control policies •Simulation of operation policies during disruption, in transition to recovery, and in post-recovery periods
	Systems Dynamics
	Agent-Based Simulation
	Discrete-Event Simulation