Table 1.

Summary of in vitro and in vivo studies combining anticancer agents with CQ

Tumor type	Intervention	Intervention dose	CQ dose	Cell line/animal model	Therapeutic effect	Refs
APL	Arsenic trioxide	1 μM	10, 25 uM	NB4	Suppressing cell growth, inhibiting autophagy, and inducing mitochondrial pathway apoptosis and S phase arrest	[90]
BC	Trichostatin A	0.5 μM	25 μM	MCF10A, MCF10A-ras	Inducing cell apoptosis by activating FOXO1 and inhibiting mTOR pathway	[91]
CSCC	Gefitinib	5 μM	50, 100 μM	A431	Inhibiting protective autophagy and enhancing apoptosis	[92]
GC	Tenovin-6	0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 μM	25, 50 μM	AGSEBV, SNU-719, AGS, HGC-27, N87, SNU-1, KATO-III	Inhibiting cell proliferation, inhibiting autophagy flux, and inducing G1 arrest and apoptosis with p53 activation	[93]
GC	CMG002	100 nM	10 μM	AGS, NUGC3	Inducing apoptotic cell death by blocking PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway	[94]
HCC	Doxorubicin	1 mg/kg 2 times/week	25 mg/kg/day	Sprague–Dawley rats	Inducing apoptosis by upregulating TRAIL/TRAILR2, caspase-3, and caspase-8 and downregulating Bcl-2	[95]
Hypophysoma	Cabergoline	100 μM	20 μM	GH3, MMQ	Increasing cell death, enhancing disruption of autophagy; inducing apoptosis with accumulation of p62/caspase8/LC3-II	[103]
		0.5 mg/kg/2 days	50 mg/kg/day	Athymic nude mice, F344 rats	Suppressing tumor growth
Melanoma	Temozolomide	100 μM	20 μM	Mel MTP, Mel Z and Mel IL	Potentiating TMZ-induced apoptosis, inducing G0/G1 arrest and enhancing cytotoxicity	[96]
NEN	Everolimus (RAD001)	3 mg/kg/day	60 mg/kg/day	BON1 subcutaneous neoplasm mice	Reducing tumor size and weight, inhibiting autophagy and increasing apoptosis with mTORC1 signaling pathway inhibition	[97]
NPC	Cisplatin	50 μM	5, 50 μM	C666-1	Inhibiting cell viability and promoting apoptosis with high-expression of Beclin 1 and LC3B-II	[98]
NSCLC	Paclitaxel	10 nM	10 μM	A549	Inhibiting tumor metastasis, reverting paclitaxel resistance and suppressing autophagy via ROS-mediated modulation of AKT activity and downregulation of Wnt/β-catenin pathway	[99]
	C2-ceramide	10, 20, 50 μM	10 μM	H460, H1299	Inducing cytotoxicity, promoting cell apoptosis, inhibiting autophagy through inhibition of Src and SIRT1 and activation of LAMP2 and LC3-I/II	[104]
		5 μM	5 μM	Zebrafish xenografts	Inhibiting tumor growth
	Honokiol	10, 20, 30, 40, 60 μM	10, 20 μM	A549, H460	Inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing cell death in caspase-dependent and cathepsin D-involved manner	[105]
		50 mg/kg/day	100 mg/kg/day	BALB/c nude mice	Reducing tumor growth
	Gefitinib	100 nM	10, 20 μM	PC-9/wt, PC-9/gefB4 and PC-9/gefE3	Inducing apoptosis, inhibiting autophagy and reversing gefitinib resistance	[106]
		50 mg/kg/day	75 mg/kg/day	BALB/c nude mice	Potentiating gefitinib-induced antitumor activity and reducing tumor growth
OC	Cisplatin	5 μM	5, 10 μM	SKOV3, hey	Inhibiting cell growth, migration, and invasion, inhibiting autophagy	[107]
		5 mg/kg/6 days	60 mg/kg/day	BALB/c nude mice	Reducing tumor volume and tumor weight
PC	Gambogic acid	1, 2 μM	40 μM	PANC-1, BxPC-3	Inhibiting autophagy by reducing mitochondrial membrane potential and increasing ROS accumulation	[108]
		8 mg/kg/3 days	100 mg/kg first day	BALB/c nude mice	Inhibiting tumor growth
RCC	ABT-737	1 μM	25 μM	A498, 786-O	Decreasing cell viability, inducing lysosome-dependent cell death by increasing cellular ROS level	[100]
	Everolimus	15 μM	20 μM	A498, RXF393, SN12C, 769P	Inducing cell viability and apoptosis via intrinsic mitochondrial apoptotic pathway activation	[101]
TNBC	Osimertinib	2.4, 4, 6.5 μM	10, 30, 75 μM	MDA-MB-231	Improving effectiveness of osimertinib through autophagy-apoptosis crosstalk pathway (pAKT inhibition and pBad activation)	[102]
	Isorhamnetin	10 μM	20 μM	MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, BT549, MCF-10A	Inhibiting cell proliferation, inducing apoptosis, inducing generation of ROS and inducing mitochondrial fission through phosphorylation of Camk II and Drp1 as well as their mitochondrial translocation	[109]
		20 mg/kg/2 days	40 mg/kg/2 days	Nude mice	Suppressing tumor growth

Abbreviations: APL, acute promyelocytic leukemia; BC, breast cancer; CSCC, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma; GC, gastric cancer; HCC, hepatocellular; Int., interventions; NEN, neuroendocrine neoplasms; NPC, nasopharyngeal carcinoma; NSCLC, nonsmall cell lung cancer; OC, ovarian cancer; PC, pancreatic cancer; RCC, renal cell carcinoma; TNBC, triple-negative breast cancer.