Table 2.

Description of constructs used for craniofacial regeneration in animals and human studies.

LASER ASSISTED BIOPRINTING
S No.	Studied by	Type of construct		Model used	Outcome
1	Williams et al. (2005)45	Porous PCL mandibular condyle scaffold		Pigs	Compressive modulus and yield strength values ranged from 52 to 67 MPa, 2.0–3.2 MPa. Bone formation in-vivo observed.
2	Smith et al. (2007)46	PCL based condylar ramus unit scaffold for TMJ reconstruction with BMP7.		Pigs	Cartilaginous tissue regeneration along the articulating surface with exuberant osseous tissue formation. Significant new bone growth interior and exterior to the scaffold seen.
3	Zhang et al. (2015)42	HA/epoxide acrylate maleic artificial implants for craniomaxillofacial bone defects.		Human	Improved aesthetic Results and functional recovery after reconstruction.
4	Zopf et al. (2016)92	Subcutaneous PCL auricular and nasal scaffolds		Porcine	Excellent appearance and complete soft tissue ingrowth. In-vitro histologic analysis of scaffolds showed native appearing cartilaginous growth respecting the boundaries of scaffold
5	Adamzyk et al. (2016)49	High performance thermoplastic PEKK scaffolds along with Humans and sheep MSCs in calvarial defects		Sheep	3D PEKK scaffolds were cyto- and bio-compatible and exhibited adherence, growth and osteogenic differentiation with newly formed bone, a fibrous capsule around implants.
6	Roskies et al. (2017)40	3D-printed PEKK scaffolds combined with Adipose-derived stem cells in critical-sized mandibular defect		Rabbits	Improved bone-implant interface and increased resistance to forces of mastication after mandibular reconstruction.
7	Lin et al. (2019)50	3D-printed PEKK scaffolds along with Human synovial fluid MSCs (hSF-MSCs) for calvarial critical-sized bone defects		Rabbits	In-vitro, hSF-MSCs attached, proliferated, and were osteogenic on PEKK In-vivo twice the amount of newly formed bone when compared to PEKK seeded with osteogenically-induced hSF-MSCs or PEKK scaffolds alone.
INKJET/DROPLET BIOPRINTING
1	Lee et al. (2005)104	Anatomically shaped Zygoma scaffolds of PCL/HA	In-vitro		Intestinal epithelial cell attached to scaffolds uniformly, grew preferentially in villi region.
2	Saijo et al. (2009)78	Alpha-tricalcium phosphate powder scaffolds for maxillofacial deformities.	Human		Partial union between the artificial bones and host bone tissues was seen.
3	Cooper et al. (2010)54	Circular Derma Matrix human allograft scaffold constructs with BMP2 for calvarial defect model.	Mice		Patterns of bone formation in vivo were comparable with patterned responses of osteoblastic differentiation in vitro
4	Lee et al. (2013)103	Custom scaffolds with orthogonal interconnected channels to mimic human mandibular condyle using PCL, chitosan with HA coating for osteochondral tissue engineering	In vitro		Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC) showed good viability in the scaffolds, and the apatite coating further enhanced cellular spreading and proliferation.
EXTRUSION BASED BIOPRINTING
1	Kuss et al. (2017)105	Bone constructs of PCL/HA and SVF derived cell (SVFC)-laden hydrogel bioink	Mice		Microvessel formation in vitro and in vivo, integration with existing host vasculature along with osteogenic differentiation of SVFC.
2	Kang et al. (2016)9	Cell laden hydrogels to construct mandible, calvarial scaffolds.	In vitro		Successful fabrication of mandible and calvarial bone, cartilage and skeletal muscle.