Table 4.
Association Between Use of Anticholinergic Medications (Categorized According to Clinical Significance) and Cognitive Function (β Weights and SE)
| MMSE† | Immediate Recall | Delayed Recall | Digit Back‡ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TSDD 1–90 | |||||
| Model 1 | −0.13 (0.11) | −0.01 (0.18) | 0.03 (0.18) | −0.10 (0.16) | |
| Model 2 | −0.15 (0.11) | −0.04 (0.18) | 0.01 (0.18) | −0.09 (0.16) | |
| Model 3 | −0.18 (0.13) | −0.03 (0.21) | −0.01 (0.21) | −0.05 (0.18) | |
| TSDD 91–365 | |||||
| Model 1 | −0.03 (0.23) | −0.33 (0.37) | 0.11 (0.38) | −0.05 (0.33) | |
| Model 2 | −0.02 (0.23) | −0.32 (0.37) | 0.12 (0.38) | −0.04 (0.33) | |
| Model 3 | −0.06 (0.26) | −0.30 (0.44) | 0.16 (0.45) | 0.17 (0.42) | |
| TSDD 366–1,095 | |||||
| Model 1 | 0.11 (0.23) | −0.42 (0.38) | −0.16 (0.37) | −0.26 (0.31) | |
| Model 2 | 0.09 (0.23) | −0.45 (0.38) | −0.17 (0.38) | −0.25 (0.31) | |
| Model 3 | −0.23 (0.29) | −0.25 (0.49) | 0.50 (0.48) | −0.18 (0.41) | |
| TSDD >1,095 | |||||
| Model 1 | 0.03 (0.10) | 0.04 (0.16) | −0.18 (0.16) | 0.19 (0.14) | |
| Model 2 | 0.03 (0.10) | 0.02 (0.16) | −0.20 (0.16) | 0.20 (0.14) | |
| Model 3 | −0.04 (0.11) | −0.10 (0.18) | −0.20 (0.18) | 0.28 (0.18) | |
| Spot§ | SDMT|| | PPEG (DH)¶ | PPEG (NDH)# | PPEG (BH)†† | |
| TSDD 1–90 | |||||
| Model 1 | −0.22 (0.22) | 0.44 (0.53) | 0.01 (0.18) | 0.03 (0.18) | −0.12 (0.16) |
| Model 2 | −0.23 (0.22) | 0.30 (0.53) | 0.02 (0.19) | −0.02 (0.18) | −0.08 (0.16) |
| Model 3 | −0.19 (0.25) | 0.27 (0.60) | 0.01 (0.21) | −0.03 (0.21) | −0.03 (0.18) |
| TSDD 91–365 | |||||
| Model 1 | −0.26 (0.53) | −1.11 (1.08) | −0.50 (0.37) | 0.56 (0.37) | −0.27 (0.32) |
| Model 2 | −0.27 (0.53) | −1.13 (1.08) | −0.50 (0.37) | 0.56 (0.37) | −0.28 (0.32) |
| Model 3 | −0.52 (0.63) | −0.52 (1.28) | −0.49 (0.44) | 0.60 (0.44) | −0.09 (0.38) |
| TSDD 366–1,095 | |||||
| Model 1 | −0.43 (0.45) | 0.87 (1.04) | 0.05 (0.34) | 0.05 (0.33) | −0.23 (0.31) |
| Model 2 | −0.44 (0.45) | 0.78 (1.04) | 0.05 (0.34) | 0.07 (0.33) | −0.20 (0.30) |
| Model 3 | −0.27 (0.55) | 0.01 (1.24) | 0.14 (0.43) | 0.09 (0.40) | −0.15 (0.38) |
| TSDD >1,095 | |||||
| Model 1 | −0.15 (0.21) | 0.03 (0.46) | −0.10 (0.16) | 0.17 (0.14) | −0.25 (0.14) |
| Model 2 | −0.15 (0.12) | −0.07 (0.47) | −0.10 (0.16) | 0.16 (0.15) | −0.22 (0.14) |
| Model 3 | −0.37 (0.25) | −0.35 (0.56) | −0.07 (0.19) | 0.06 (0.17) | −0.31 (0.16) |
| SRT‡‡ | CRT§§ | Trail A|||| | Trail B¶¶ | ||
| TSDD 1–90 | |||||
| Model 1 | −11.53 (6.23) | −8.81 (4.03)* | −0.15 (1.13) | 0.12 (2.66) | |
| Model 2 | −11.34 (6.23) | −8.73 (4.05)* | 0.24 (1.14) | −0.35 (2.69) | |
| Model 3 | −7.67 (7.28) | −7.87 (4.77) | 0.47 (1.31) | −0.26 (2.88) | |
| TSDD 91–365 | |||||
| Model 1 | 4.55 (13.32) | −0.65 (8.69) | −0.14 (2.42) | 7.47 (5.10) | |
| Model 2 | 4.77 (13.35) | −0.81 (8.73) | −0.26 (2.41) | 7.00 (5.09) | |
| Model 3 | 13.41 (15.17) | 2.56 (10.59) | −1.29 (2.88) | 6.35 (6.16) | |
| TSDD 366–1,095 | |||||
| Model 1 | 2.43 (12.86) | −7.21 (8.67) | 2.33 (2.31) | −1.27 (4.92) | |
| Model 2 | 2.32 (12.93) | −7.07 (8.74) | 2.71 (2.32) | −1.27 (4.91) | |
| Model 3 | 5.76 (15.77) | −4.09 (10.01) | 3.04 (2.72) | −8.62 (5.97) | |
| TSDD >1,095 | |||||
| Model 1 | −2.93 (5.40) | 4.03 (3.60) | −0.03 (1.04) | 5.77 (2.27)** | |
| Model 2 | −2.64 (5.39) | 4.10 (3.64) | 0.21 (1.04) | 5.33 (2.27)** | |
| Model 3 | −5.72 (6.30) | 2.14 (4.26) | 1.14 (1.24) | 8.32 (2.67)** |
Notes: Measures for Trail A, Trail B, SRT, and CRT represent response time. Thus, positive values for change indicate a cognitive decline. All other measures (MMSE, Immediate Recall, Delayed Recall, Digit Back, Spot, SDMT, and PPEG) represent the number of items completed correctly (negative values for change indicate cognitive decline). Model 1 = unadjusted model. Model 2 = adjusted for age, sex, and education. Model 3 = Model 2 + smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, stroke, diabetes, hypertension, BMI, depression, and family history of dementia.
†Mini-Mental State Examination. ‡Digit Span Backwards Test. §Spot-the-Word Test. ||Symbol Digit Modalities Test. ¶Purdue Pegboard Test (Dominant Hand). #Purdue Pegboard Test (Nondominant hand). ††Purdue Pegboard Test (Both hands). ‡‡Simple Reaction Time. §§Choice Reaction Time. ||||Trail Making Test Part A. ¶¶Trail Making Test Part B.
*Significance at p < .05. **Significance at p < .01. ***Significance at p < .001.