Table 4.
Coffee Consumption and Cause-Specific Mortality in the Multiethnic Cohort, 1993–2012*
| Coffee Consumption | Heart Disease |
Cancer |
Chronic Lower Respiratory Disease |
Stroke |
Accident |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Deaths, n | HR (95% CI) | Deaths, n | HR (95% CI) | Deaths, n | HR (95% CI) | Deaths, n | HR (95% CI) | Deaths, n | HR (95% CI) | |
| None | 2654 | 1.00 (reference) | 2732 | 1.00 (reference) | 372 | 1.00 (reference) | 698 | 1.00 (reference) | 69 | 1.00 (reference) |
| 1–3 cups/mo | 1210 | 0.97 (0.88–1.07) | 1239 | 1.03 (0.94–1.14) | 153 | 0.96 (0.72–1.30) | 299 | 0.94 (0.78–1.14) | 32 | 1.18 (0.63–2.22) |
| 1–6 cups/wk | 2257 | 0.97 (0.89–1.05) | 2335 | 0.99 (0.91–1.07) | 294 | 0.77 (0.60–0.99) | 569 | 0.96 (0.82–1.12) | 53 | 1.03 (0.61–1.75) |
| 1 cup/d | 5301 | 0.84 (0.79–0.90) | 6088 | 0.97 (0.91–1.03) | 791 | 0.73 (0.59–0.89) | 1409 | 0.88 (0.77–1.00) | 98 | 0.68 (0.43–1.08) |
| 2–3 cups/d | 3457 | 0.79 (0.73–0.85) | 4567 | 0.92 (0.86–0.98) | 635 | 0.68 (0.55–0.84) | 808 | 0.73 (0.63–0.84) | 95 | 0.81 (0.50–1.32) |
| ≥4 cups/d | 964 | 0.75 (0.68–0.84) | 1390 | 0.97 (0.87–1.06) | 238 | 0.79 (0.59–1.06) | 200 | 0.72 (0.57–0.91) | 19 | 0.73 (0.33–1.61) |
| P for trend | – | <0.001 | – | 0.023 | – | 0.015 | – | <0.001 | – | 0.24 |
| Increase per cup | – | 0.94 (0.92–0.95) | – | 0.98 (0.97–1.00) | – | 0.95 (0.90–1.00) | – | 0.91 (0.88–0.95) | – | 0.91 (0.80–1.04) |
|
Alzheimer Disease |
Diabetes Mellitus |
Influenza and Pneumonia |
Kidney Disease |
Intentional Self-Harm |
||||||
| None | 248 | 1.00 (reference) | 386 | 1.00 (reference) | 261 | 1.00 (reference) | 186 | 1.00 (reference) | 30 | 1.00 (reference) |
| 1–3 cups/mo | 117 | 1.01 (0.72–1.41) | 183 | 1.05 (0.83–1.34) | 106 | 0.95 (0.70–1.29) | 80 | 0.75 (0.52–1.08) | 15 | 1.06 (0.41–2.76) |
| 1–6 cups/wk | 173 | 0.92 (0.69–1.24) | 322 | 1.00 (0.82–1.22) | 231 | 1.12 (0.86–1.45) | 160 | 0.83 (0.61–1.12) | 24 | 0.73 (0.29–1.88) |
| 1 cup/d | 467 | 0.90 (0.71–1.14) | 704 | 0.85 (0.72–1.00) | 620 | 1.03 (0.84–1.28) | 289 | 0.60 (0.46–0.78) | 64 | 0.91 (0.45–1.86) |
| 2–3 cups/d | 332 | 1.16 (0.90–1.49) | 473 | 0.77 (0.64–0.93) | 361 | 0.90 (0.71–1.14) | 214 | 0.59 (0.45–0.79) | 59 | 1.17 (0.57–2.42) |
| ≥4 cups/d | 67 | 1.33 (0.86–2.04) | 135 | 0.86 (0.65–1.14) | 94 | 1.02 (0.72–1.45) | 46 | 0.42 (0.26–0.67) | 10 | 0.53 (0.16–1.82) |
| P for trend | – | 0.066 | – | 0.009 | – | 0.38 | – | <0.001 | – | 0.86 |
| Increase per cup | – | 1.07 (1.00–1.15) | – | 0.94 (0.90–0.99) | – | 0.98 (0.93–1.04) | – | 0.84 (0.77–0.91) | – | 0.97 (0.80–1.17) |
HR = hazard ratio.
*
The following variables were included to control for the effects of smoking: smoking status; average number of cigarettes; squared average number of cigarettes; number of years smoking (time-dependent); number of years since quitting (time-dependent); and interactions between ethnicity and smoking status, average number of cigarettes, squared average number of cigarettes, and number of years smoking. The models were also adjusted for age at cohort entry, sex, ethnicity, body mass index, education, physical activity, alcohol consumption, total energy intake, energy from fat, and preexisting illness.