Table 3.

Comparison of HMF processes and relevant parameters of HMF production methods.

Company/Research center	Reactor type	Process type	Feedstock	Catalyst	Solvent (Chem21 classification)	T [°C]	t [min]	Conv. [%]	Yield [%]	RME [%]	Ref.
BASF SE	tank reactor	batch	fructose		ionic liquid, [EMIm][MeSO4]	100–160			88		45
BASF SE	tank reactor	batch	glucose	metal chloride, CrCl3	ionic liquid, [EMIm][MeSO4]	100–160			63		45
BASF SE		semi‐batch	fructose	Brønsted acid, methanesulfonic acid	ionic liquids, [EMIm][OMs]			97.6	86.5	60.7	46
BASF SE	tank reactor	batch	fructose	Brønsted acid, methanesulfonic acid	ionic liquids, [EMIm][OMs]	100–160		93	75.8		46
BASF SE	pipe reactor	continuous.	fructose	Brønsted acid, methanesulfonic acid	ionic liquids, [EMIm][OMs]	100–160		97	71.4		47, 88
BASF SE	evaporator	continuous.	carbohydrates		ionic liquid+organic solvent				22		44, 88
BASF SE	evaporator	continuous.	fructose		[BMIm]Cl+methanol+water (recommended)	200			8		47, 88
ADM SE		batch	HFCS								47
ADM SE		batch	HFCS	Amberlyst 35	NMP (hazardous)	115	300	94.1	80.6		48
ADM SE		batch	HFCS	Amberlyst 35	NMP (hazardous)	105	300	71.6	85.4		48
ADM SE		batch	HFCS	Amberlyst 35	DMAc (hazardous)	105	300	62.1	74.6		48
ADM SE		batch	HFCS	Amberlyst 35	DMF/MIBK (hazardous/recommended)	85	420	89.3			48
ADM SE	in situ distillation	batch	HFCS	Amberlyst 35	NMP (hazardous)	105	120	75.7	79.5		48
ADM SE		batch	HFCS	1.8 % H2SO4	NMP (hazardous)	160	20	80.1	12.4		48
ADM SE		batch	fructose	5 % HCl	2‐butanol +NaCl (recommended)	120	30	49			50
ADM SE		batch	fructose	5 % HCl	diglyme	100	60	43			50
ADM SE		batch	fructose	5 % HCl	dioxane (hazardous)	130	15	46			50
ADM SE		batch	fructose	10 % HCl	glyme	110	30	48			50
ADM SE		batch	fructose	5 % HCl	THF (problematic)	140	30	44			50
Micromidas Inc.	fluidized bed reactor	continuous	cellulosic feedstock	dried gaseous acid, e.g., HCl	organic solvent, e.g., dichloromethane (hazardous)	200‐250					54
WARF	glass vial	batch	fructose	H2SO4	DMAc–LiCl (0.5 %) (hazardous)	120	120		81		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	fructose	CuCl; additive: [EMIm]Cl	DMAc–LiCl (10 %) (hazardous)	120	90		83		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	fructose	H2SO4	DMAc+LiI (hazardous)	120	120		94		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	fructose	H2SO4; additive: [EMIm]Br	DMAc (hazardous)	120	60		94		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	glucose	CrCl2	DMAc (hazardous)	120	195		45		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	glucose	CrCl2; additive: NaBr	DMAc (hazardous)	100	300		81		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	glucose	CrCl2, additive: LiBr	DMAc (hazardous)	100	240		79		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	glucose	CrCl2, additive [EMIm]Br	DMAc (hazardous)	100	120		78		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	saccharose	CrCl3, additive: LiBr	DMAc (hazardous)	100	180		79		55
WARF	glass vial	batch	cellulose	CrCl2+HCl; additive [EMIm]Cl	DMAc–LiCl (hazardous)	140	120		54		55
WARF		batch	cellulose	H2SO4	aprotic polar solvents, e.g., THF (problematic)	190	120		44		57
WARF		batch	glucose	AlCl3+HCl	biphasic: SBP, water				62		60
WARF		batch	fructose	AlCl3+HCl	biphasic: GVL, water (problematic/recommended)	170	20	94	84		61
Battelle Memorial Institute	glass vial	batch	fructose	PtCl2	[EMIm]Cl	80	180	99	83		63a
Battelle Memorial Institute	glass vial	batch	fructose	RhCl3	[EMIm]Cl	80	180	99	83		63a
Battelle Memorial Institute	glass vial	batch	fructose	H2SO4	[EMIm]Cl	80	180	99	80		63a
Battelle Memorial Institute	glass vial	batch	fructose		[EMIm][MeSO4]	80	180	99.6	86.5		63a
Battelle Memorial Institute	glass vial	batch	glucose	CrCl2	[EMIm]Cl	100	180	94.4	68		63a
A*STAR		batch	fructose	HCl	isopropanol (recommended)	100	240		83	58.1	64
A*STAR		batch	fructose	HCl	ethanol (recommended)	100	240		60	42.0	64
A*STAR		batch	fructose	HCl	1‐propanol (recommended)	100	240		73	51.2	64
A*STAR		batch	fructose	HCl	1‐butanol (recommended)	100	240		68	47.6	64
A*STAR		batch	fructose	HCl	isopropanol (recommended)	120	60		82	57.40	64
Sartec Corp.	column reactor	continuous	glucose	TiO2+HCl	MIBK/water (10:1)	180	2		46		66
Novamont S.P.A.	glass flask	batch	saccharose	TEAB, HPWO/Si50O	water (recommended)	80–100			67	24.68	67
Novamont S.P.A.	glass flask	batch	fructose	TEAB, HPWO/Si50O	water (recommended)	80‐100			80		67
Novamont S.P.A.	glass flask	batch	fructose	Ti Si50O, TEAC	water (recommended)	80–100			93	65.10	67
Novamont S.P.A.	glass flask	batch	fructose	α‐Zr(HPO4)2+TEAB	water (recommended)	80–100			87.6	61.32	67
Novamont S.P.A.	glass flask	batch	maize syrup	10 % HPWO/Si50O+TEAB	water (recommended)	80–100			75	59.0	67
Novamont S.P.A.	glass flask	batch	fructose	Ti(HPO4)2+TEAB	water (recommended)	80–100			80	56	67
Novamont S.P.A.	glass flask	batch	inulin	30 % HPWO/Si50O+TEAB	water (recommended)	80–110			63	60.0	67
Novozymes A/S		continuous.	fructose	salts, e.g., KCl	biphasic: organic solvent/ water			98	70		68
UC Regents		batch	glucose	acid catalyst, for example, AlCl3	ionic liquids, e.g., [C2mim]Cl[a]				55–60		69
Südzucker AG.	TESA reactor	continuous[]s.	fructose	1–2.5 wt % mineral acids, e.g., HCl	water (recommended)	80–165		40[b]			70
AVALON Industries	pressure reactor	batch	lignocellulose		water (recommended)	–		–			73

[a] C2mim=1‐ethyl‐3‐methylimidazolium. [b] Set endpoint.