Table 6. Frequency of treatment and supportive therapy, from the quality effects models, overall and in subgroups of studies.
| Overall | Initially asymptomatic | Early | Pregnant | All-comers | Admitted to hospital | Severely ill patients | Source of heterogeneity identified by meta-regression | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Mild / moderate | Moderate / severe | ||||||||
| Antibiotics | 0.04–1.00 (n = 2471; 17 studies) | 0.04 (n = 24; 1 study) | 0.20 (n = 10; 1 study) | 1.00 (n = 15; 1 study) | 0.58 (n = 1099; 1 study) | 0.23–1.00 (n = 1323; 13 studies) | 0.23–1.00 (n = 321; 4 studies) | 0.44–0.98 (n = 1002; 9 studies) | 0.20–1.00 (n = 676; 9 studies) Pooled 0.90; 95% CI 0.80–0.97 Q = 62.85; p<0.01; I2 = 87% |
All hospitalized patients: Increasing probability of antibiotics given with increasing severity R2 = 49%; p = 0.018 |
| Antivirals | 0.21–1.00 (n = 3059; 27 studies) | 0.88–1.00 (n = 79; 2 studies) | 1.00 (n = 10; 1 study) | 0.73 (n = 15; 1 study) | 0.36 (n = 1099; 1 study) | 0.21–1.00 (n = 1856; 22 studies) | 0.28–1.00 (n = 358; 6 studies) | 0.21–1.00 (n = 1498; 16 studies) | 0.44–1.00 (n = 725; 12 studies) |
All hospitalized patients: Decreasing probability of antivirals given with increasing severity R2 = 19%; p = 0.044 |
| Immunoglobulin | 0.04–0.73 (n = 2499; 18 studies) | 0.04–0.13 (n = 79; 2 studies) | 0.50 (n = 10; 1 study) | – | 0.13 (n = 1099; 1 study) | 0.06–0.73 (n = 1311; 14 studies) | 0.13–0.33 (n = 321; 4 studies) Pooled 0.19; 95% CI 0.11–0.28 Q = 9.5; p = 0.02; I2 = 68% |
0.06–0.73 (n = 990; 10 studies) | 0.16–0.54 (n = 335; 4 studies) Pooled 0.36; 95% CI 0.22–0.51 Q = 18.26; p<0.01; I2 = 84% |
All hospitalized patients: Increasing probability of immunoglobulin given with increasing severity R2 = 20%; p = 0.034 |
| Steroids | 0.00–0.83 (n = 2917; 22 studies) | 0.00–0.04 (n = 79; 2 studies) | 0.30 (n = 10; 1 study) | – | 0.19 (n = 1099; 1 study) | 0.00–0.83 (n = 1729; 18 studies) | 0.00–0.51 (n = 387; 5 studies) | 0.19–0.83 (n = 1342; 13 studies) | 0.34–0.83 (n = 655; 8 studies) Pooled 0.52; 95% CI 0.39–0.65 Q = 51.83; p<0.01; I2 = 86% |
All hospitalized patients: Increasing probability of steroids given with increasing severity R2 = 36%; p = 0.004 |
| ICU admission | 0.00–0.30 (n = 2410; 17 studies) | 0.00–0.00 (n = 79; 2 studies) | 0.30 (n = 10; 1 study) | 0.08 (n = 13; 1 study) | 0.05–0.10 (n = 1439; 3 studies) Pooled 0.06; 95% CI 0.03–0.10 Q = 7.50; p = 0.02; I2 = 73% |
0.00–0.26 (n = 869; 10 studies) | 0.00–0.11 (n = 277; 5 studies) Pooled 0.02; 95% CI 0.00–0.06 Q = 10.51; p = 0.03; I2 = 62% |
0.13–0.26 (n = 592; 5 studies) Pooled 0.24; 95% CI 0.20–0.29 Q = 5.69; p = 0.22; I2 = 30% |
0.19–1.00 (n = 99; 3 studies) |
All hospitalized patients: ICU admission is 22% more likely in moderate/severe than in mild moderate patients 0.24 (95% CI 0.20–0.29) vs. 0.02 (0–0.06) Increasing occurrence with increasing severity R2 = 77%; p = 0.003 |
| Oxygen | 0.00–0.96 (n = 2928; 21 studies) | 0.04 (n = 55, 1 study) | 0.90 (n = 10; 1 study) | 0.93 (n = 15; 1 study) | 0.41 (n = 1099; 1 study) | 0.00–0.96 (n = 1749; 17 studies) | 0.00–0.94 (n = 537; 5 studies) | 0.05–0.96 (n = 1212; 17 studies) | – |
All hospitalized patients: Two non-overlapping clusters are identified (0.05–0.33) and (0.49–0.96) both showing decrease in prevalence with increasing severity Cluster 1 did not reach significance Cluster 2 R2 = 42%; p = 0.033 |
| Non-invasive ventilation | 0.00–0.56 (n = 2788; 24 studies) | 0.00 (n = 24; 1 study) | 0.00 (n = 10; 1 study) | 0.00 (n = 13; 1 study) | 0.05 (n = 1099; 1 study) | 0.00–0.56 (n = 1642; 20 studies) | 0.00–0.44 (n = 355; 5 studies) | 0.05–0.56 (n = 1287; 15 studies) Pooled 0.23; 95% CI 0.16–0.32 Q = 112.78; p<0.01; I2 = 88% |
0.05–0.73 (n = 732; 10 studies) |
All hospitalized patients: Increasing prevalence with increasing severity R2 = 22%; p = 0.038 |
| Invasive ventilation | 0.00–0.71 (n = 2907; 25 studies) | 0.00–0.00 (n = 79; 2 studies) Pooled 0.01; 95% CI 0.0–0.03 Q = 0.08; p = 0.78; I2 = 0% |
0.00–0.00 (n = 61; 2 studies) Pooled 0.01; 95% CI 0.0–0.04 Q = 0.24; p = 0.62; I2 = 0% |
0.08 (n = 13; 1 study) | 0.02 (n = 1099; 1 study) | 0.00–0.71 (n = 1655; 19 studies) | 0.00–0.02 (n = 417; 6 studies) | 0.00–0.71 (n = 1238; 13 studies) | 0.03–0.71 (n = 692; 9 studies) |
All hospitalized patients: Increasing prevalence with increasing severity R2 = 48%; p = 0.003 Severely ill patients: Increasing prevalence with increasing severity R2 = 74%; p = 0.004 |
| ECMO | 0.00–0.12 (n = X; 15 studies) Pooled 0.011; 95% CI 0.002–0.025 Q = 36.23; p<0.01; I2 = 61% |
0.00–0.00 (n = 79; 2 studies) Pooled 0.006; 95% CI 0.00–0.029 Q = 0.08; p = 0.78; I2 = 0% |
– | 0.08; 95% CI 0.00–0.30 (n = 13; 1 study) | 0.00 (n = 1099; 1 study) | 0.00–0.12 (n = 1154; 11 studies) Pooled 0.016; 95% CI 0.005–0.033 Q = 26.60; p<0.01; I2 = 62% |
0.00–0.00 (n = X; 3 studies) Pooled 0.004; 95% CI 0.00–0.017 Q = 4.28; p = 0.23; I2 = 30% |
0.00–0.12 (n = X; 7 studies) Pooled 0.024; 95% CI 0.008–0.046 Q = 16.85; p = 0.02; I2 = 58% |
0.00–0.17 (n = X; 9 studies) Pooled 0.03; 95% CI 0.01–0.06 Q = 15.33; p = 0.05; I2 = 48% |
All hospitalized patients: Increasing usage of ECMO with increasing severity R2 = 41%; p = 0.013 |
| Dialysis | 0.00–0.09 (n = 534; 7 studies) | 0.00 (n = 24; 1 study) | – | – | – | 0.00–0.09 (n = 510; 6 studies) Pooled 0.054; 95% CI 0.025–0.093 Q = 10.28; p = 0.07; I2 = 51% |
0.00–0.01 (n = 110; 2 studies) Pooled 0.016; 95% CI 0.0–0.043 Q = 0.17; p = 0.68; I2 = 0% |
0.05–0.09 (n = 400; 4 studies) Pooled 0.07; 95% CI 0.046–0.098 Q = 2.16; p = 0.54; I2 = 0% |
0.05–0.10 (n = X; 4 studies) Pooled 0.08; 95% CI 0.05–0.12 Q = 2.10; p = 0.55; I2 = 0% |
All hospitalized patients: Dialysis is 5% more likely in moderate/severe than in mild moderate patients 0.07 (95% CI 0.046–0.098) vs. 0.016 (0.0–0.043) |
ECMO, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.
Pooled prevalence estimates and 95% CIs are shown where there was appropriately low heterogeneity (I2<90).