Table 4.

Summary of studies on liver organoid applications as liver tumors.

Starting Material	Author	Approach	Aim	Result	Limitation	Reference
Needle Biopsies	Takai et al.	Hepatocellular carcinoma cells cultured in porous alginate scaffolds generated spheroids	Mimic numerous features of glandular epithelium	Mimic numerous features of glandular epithelium	Tumor microenvironment interactions are not recapitulated	[165]
PDX in Immunocompromised Mice	Broutier et al.	PDX organoids from HCC	Drug sensitivity experiment	ERK inhibition could have an effect of HCC progression	Not suitable for immunotherapeutic approaches	[153]
	Gu et al.	PDX organoids from HCC	To generate a cohort of liver cancers to test a multi-kinase inhibitor	The drug was effective and used as a treatment for patients with advanced HCC	Not suitable for immunotherapeutic approaches	[167]
	Nie et al.	PDX organoids from HCC	To generate a cohort of liver cancers containing information about the expression profiles and the genetic alterations of all considered tumors	Identification of biomarkers for personalized medicine	Not suitable for immunotherapeutic approaches	[160]
	Saito et al.	PDX organoids from cholangiocarcinoma cells	To demonstrate that cholangiocarcinoma derives from differentiated hepatocytes	Restored hepatic functions	Not suitable for immunotherapeutic approaches	[171]
PDX in Immunocompetent Mice	Jiang et al.	HCC PDXs were generated in NSG gamma null mice repopulated with CAR-T cells	To study cancer immunotherapy	CAR-T cells directed against an HCC tumor-associated antigen suppressed tumor growth	Low engraftment of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow of transplanted mice	[174]
	Choi et al.	HCCs generated in NSG mice with human leukocyte antigen-matched human immune systems	To study cancer immunotherapy	Organoids models were responsive to immunotherapies	Low engraftment of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow of transplanted mice	[173]
Organoids from Normal Tissues	Artegiani et al.	healthy iPSCs or normal tissues	Introduce BAP1 and cholangiocarcinoma mutations by CRIPSR Cas9	Acquisition of malignant features	-	[177]