Table 1.
Selected non-pharmacological interventions aiming at white adipose tissue (WAT) browning and brown adipose tissue (BAT) activation.
| Intervention | Mechanism of Action | WAT | BAT | Experimental Model | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cold exposure | |||||
| ↑ ADRB3 | ↑ brown adipocytes ↑ activity |
129Sv mice | [56] | ||
| ↑ ADRB3 | ↑ beige adipocytes | clinical study | [60,61,62] | ||
| capsaicin and cold exposure | ↑ ADRB3 | ↑ beige adipocytes | C57BL/6 mice on high-fat diet | [65] | |
| ↓ white adipocytes | ↑ activity | clinical study | [67] | ||
| Diet | |||||
| caloric restriction | ↑ SIRT1 | ↑ beige adipocytes | mice on caloric restriction | [111] | |
| capsaicin | ↑ ADRB3 ↑ TRPV ↑ SIRT1 |
↑ beige adipocytes | ↑ brown adipocytes ↑ activity |
normal-weight rats | [64] |
| ↑ activity | clinical study | [66] | |||
| resveratrol | ↑ SIRT1 | ↑ activity | mice on high-fat diet | [69] | |
| ↑ AMPK | ↑ beige adipocytes | WAT-derived murine stromal vascular cells | [70] | ||
| clinical study | [74] | ||||
| ↑ mTOR | ↑ brown adipocytes | 3T3-L1 adipocytes | [71] | ||
| curcumin | ↑ AMPK | ↑ beige adipocytes | murine primary white adipocytes 3T3-L1 adipocytes |
[78] [78] |
|
| normal-weight mice | [79] | ||||
| C57BL/6 mice on high-fat diet | [80] | ||||
| ↑ activity | C57BL/6 mice on high-fat diet | [80] | |||
| green tea catechins | ↑ PPARγ | ↓white adipocytes | ↑ activity | rats on normal diet | [81] |
| ↑ brown adipocytes | clinical study | [83] | |||
| berberine | ↑ AMPK | ↑ brown adipocytes | obese db/db mice | [87] | |
| ↑ brown adipocytes | clinical study | [88] | |||
| PUFA | ↑ ADRB3 | ↑ beige adipocytes | murine white adipocytes | [89] | |
| ↑ TRPV | human white adipocytes | [90] | |||
| ↑ FFAR4 | ↑ activity | rats on high-fat diet | [68] | ||
| ATRA | ↑ RAR | ↑ beige adipocytes | ↑ brown adipocytes | murine white adipocytes | [94] |
| = | = | human white adipocytes | [94] | ||
| ↑ beige adipocytes | ↑ brown adipocytes | obese rodents | [95] | ||
| Physical activity | |||||
| ↑ irisin | ↑ beige adipocytes | murine white adipocyte | [97] | ||
| ↑ brown adipocytes | C57BL/6 mice on high-fat diet | [97] | |||
| ↑ activity | C57BL/6 mice on high-fat diet | [97] | |||
| =irisin | =beige adipocytes | clinical study | [96] | ||
| ↑ IL-6 | ↑ beige adipocytes | murine white adipocyte | [99] | ||
| ↑ beige adipocytes | mice on high-fat diet | [99] | |||
| ↑ FGF21 | ↑ FFA oxidation | ↑ activity | mice with diet-induced obesity | [100] | |
| ↑ activity | clinical study | [102] | |||
| Microbiome | |||||
| ↑ type 2 cytokine signaling | ↑ beige adipocytes | obese ob/ob mice | [106] | ||
| mice on high-fat diet | [106] | ||||
| ↑ lactate | ↑ beige adipocytes | murine and human white adipocyte | [113] | ||
| Bariatric surgery | |||||
| ↑ bile acids | ↑ beige adipocytes | ↑ activity | clinical studies | [117] | |
| microbiota | ↑ beige adipocytes | ↑ activity | clinical studies | [117] |
↑ increase/enhancement; ↓ decrease/reduction; ADRB3—adrenergic receptor beta 3; AMPK—AMP-activated protein kinase; ATRA—all-trans retinoic acid; FFA—free fatty acids, FFAR4—free fatty acids receptor 4; FGF21—fibroblast growth factor 21; IL-6—interleukin 6, mTOR—mammalian target of rapamycin; PPARγ—proliferator-activated receptor gamma; PUFA—polyunsaturated fatty acids; SIRT1—sirtuin 1; TRPV—transient receptor potential vanilloid.