Table 1.
Main characteristics of the selected studies (N = 20).
| Reference | Participants: N, Mean Age (MA) or Range, % Males, and IQ | Study Design | Technology/ Evaluation | Dependent Variables | Main Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cihak et al. [24] | ASD (3), 6–7 years, 100% males, IQ (70–75) | Single subject multiple baseline design | AR picture prompt to trigger a video model clip | Functional life skills (number of steps completed independently for brushing teeth) | AR was an effective tool for teaching chain tasks |
| Bai et al. [25] | ASD (12), MA (6.8 SD 5.5), % males (83%), IQ > 70 | Within-subject experiment with two conditions: AR and non-AR |
Set of AR props, video analysis, and parent and participants questionnaire |
Elicit pretend play engagement |
Significantly higher frequency and duration of pretend play in the AR condition and participants are more engaged |
| Chen et al. [26] | ASD (6), MA (11.5), males (83%), IQ 103.6 (9.3) | Single subject multiple baseline design | AR video modelling and storybook | Understand facial emotions and social expressions | Significant improvement in social/emotional awareness |
| Chen et al. [27] | ASD (3), MA (12.2), males (100%), IQ 101 (9.2) | Single subject multiple baseline design | AR-based self-facial learning system | 6 basic facial expressions | Significant improvement in emotion recognition |
| Escobedo et al. [28] |
ASD (12), MA (5.1 SD 0.9), males n.r., IQ low | Single subject design | AR smartphone | Selective and sustained attention | Improvement of both attention skills |
| Antão et al. [29] | ASD (48), MA (11, SD 5), males (89%), IQ > 70 TD (48), MA (11.8, SD 5.2) males (68%) |
Group design | AR computer game “MoviLetrando” |
Reaction time (RT) | ASD: significant improvement in RT after AR task |
| Liu et al. [30] | ASD (2), 8–9 age, males (100%), IQ > 70 | Single subject design | AR smartglasses and parent questionnaires | Social interaction | Improvement in nonverbal communication, eye contact, and social engagement |
| Lee et al. [31] | ASD (3), MA (8.8) 67% males, IQ (93.3, SD 4.6) | Single subject multiple baseline design | AR CM training system and social story test | Social interaction | AR CM training system improved social relationships |
| Lee et al. [32] | ASD (3), MA (8.1) 67% males, IQ (102.3, SD 0.6) | Single subject multiple baseline design | KST System with AR technology and social story test | Social interaction | AR-KST System intervention improved significantly autism social interaction |
| Magrini et al. [33] | ASD (10), 5–7 years, males (100%), IQ low | Within-subject experiment with two conditions: AR (5 subjects) and non-AR (5 subjects) | AR system with multisensory experience | Fine Motor skills | Significant motor improvement in AR condition |
| Lorenzo et al. [34] | ASD (11), MA (4, SD 1.2), males (91%), IQ low | Within-subject experiment with two conditions: AR and non-AR | AR smartphone and questionnaires | Social interaction | Nonsignificant improvement between groups |
| Farr et al. [35] | ASD (12), MA (11.2), males (% 42%), IQ n.r. | Within-subject experiment with two conditions: AR and non-AR | AR Knight’s Castle (AKC) play | Social interaction | AR condition showed more social behavior interaction than non-AR |
| Sahin et al. [36] | ASD (8), MA (11.7 SD 3.3), males (88%), IQ > 70 | Single subject design | AR smartglasses and questionnaires | Social interaction | Positive social experience after AR |
| Nazaruddin et al. [37] | ASD (4), 6–7 years, 50% males, IQ > 70 | Single subject design | Augmented reality book and teacher questionnaire | Attention skills | AR book was able to increase focus and recognition of objects |
| Keshav et al. [38] | ASD (1), 13 years old, 100% males, IQ > 70 | Single subject design | Empowered BrainAR Smartglasses and Social Responsiveness Scale-2 (SRS-2) | Social interaction and social communication skills | Improvement in SRS-2 social communication, motivation, and restricted and repetitive behavior subscales; improvements in verbal and nonverbal skills |
| Vahabzadeh et al. [39] | ASD (4), MA (7.5), male (100%), IQ > 70 | Single subject design | Empowered brain, AR-computerized smartglasses, and Aberrant Behavioral Checklist (ABC) |
Socioemotional and behavioral effects | Improvement in irritability, hyperactivity, and social withdrawal in a sample of students with ASD |
| Chung et al. [40] | ASD (3), 6–12 years old, males (100%), IQ > 70 non-ASD siblings (3), 6–12 years old, males (100%), IQ > 70 |
Single subject design | AR video games sessions | Social communication and joint positive affect | AR condition showed more joint positive affect and increased reciprocal communication |
| Soares et al. [41] | ASD (4), 8–12 years old, males (75%), IQ n.r. (low) | Single subject design | AR-based cardboard head-mounted display |
Social interaction and facial processing |
Better facial processing after use of AR cardboard display and EF implications |
| Escobedo et al. [42] | ASD (3), MA (10.1, SD 0.9), IQ > 70, non-ASD (11), 8–11 years old, IQ > 70 | Group design | Mobile augmented reality application and selfreports | Social interaction | AR mobile application increased the number social interactions in ASD group |
| Nag et al. [43] | ASD (16), MA (12.1, SD 3.3), IQ (102.7, SD 19.5) non-ASD (17) MA (11.5, SD 2.4), IQ (108.9, SD 9.5), males n.r. |
Group design | AR smartglasses task | Emotion recognition | AR task contributed to differentiating and classifying gaze and emotion recognition patterns between ASD and non-ASD groups |
ASD: Autism Spectrum Disorder; AR: augmented reality, n.r.: not reported, SD: standard deviation, EF: executive functions, N: number, KST: Kinect Skeletal Tracking, CM: concept map, IQ: intelligence quotient.