Table 1.
Selected Study Characteristics of CBTp RCTs for Hallucinations and Delusions
| Experimental Condition | Control Condition | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Author | Year | Format | Duration Intervention | CBT Format | CBTp | Age | Male Sex | Control Format | Control | Age | Male Sex | Country | CF | Bias Risk 0–4 | Selected Outcome Measure |
| N | Mean (SD) | % | N | Mean (SD) | % | ||||||||||
| Lewis et al 29 | 2002 | Indiv | 15–20 h in 5 wk | CBT | 101 | 29.1 | 71% | [1] SC [2] TAU | [1] 106 [2] 102 | [1] 27.2 [2] 27.0 | [1] 71% [2] 68% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Durham et al24 | 2003 | Indiv | 9 mo | CBT | 22 | 36.0 (10.0) | 68% | [1] SC [2] TAU | [1] 23 [2] 21 | [1] 37.0 (11.2) [2] 36.0 (10.2) | [1] 65% [2] 71% | UK | Y | 1 | PSYRATS |
| Trower et al33 | 2004 | Indiv | 6 mo | CT CH | 18 | 36.6 (10.3) | 56% | TAU | 20 | 35.1 (10.4) | 70% | UK | Y | 1 | PSYRATS |
| Cather et al30 | 2005 | Indiv | 16 weekly sessions | fCBT | 15 | 40.4 (12.0) | 57% | PE | 13 | 40.4 (12.0) | 57% | USA | Y | 1 | PSYRATS |
| Wykes et al34 | 2005 | Group | 10 wk | CBT | 45 | 39.7 (10.8) | 53% | TAU | 40 | 39.7 (10.1) | 65% | UK | N | PSYRATS | |
| Valmaggia et al25 | 2005 | Indiv | 6 mo | CBT | 35 | 35.5 (10.8) | 77% | SC | 23 | 35.5 (11.4) | 61% | NL | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| McLeod et al35 | 2007 | Group | 8 weekly sessions | CBT | 10 | n.a. | n.a. | TAU | 10 | n.a. | n.a. | UK | N | 3 | PSYRATS |
| O’Connor et al26 | 2007 | Indiv | 24 weekly sessions | CBT | 12 | 40 (9.4) | 45% | SC | 12 | 36.8 (13.5) | 67% | CAN | Y | 3 | MADS |
| Garety et al36 | 2008 | Indiv | 20 in 9 mo | CBT | 60 H 85 D | 39.1 (10.3) | 71% | TAU | 60 H 85 D | 37.1 (10.9) | 72% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Penn et al27 | 2009 | Group | 12 wk | CBT | 32 | 41.7 (11.8) | 53% | SC | 33 | 39.6 (15.7) | 49% | USA | N | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Haddock et al17 | 2009 | Indiv | 17 sessions | CBT | 38 | 35.7 (12.5) | 86% | SC | 39 | 33.9 (9.7) | 86% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Peters et al27 | 2010 | Indiv | 6 mo | CBT | 36 | 34.0 (9.8) | 72% | TAU | 38 | 39.6 (10.2) | 53% | UK | Y | 2 | BAVQ-R |
| Foster et al37 | 2010 | Indiv | 4 wk | CBT | 9 | 40.0 (10.0) | 58% | TAU | 11 | 39.1 (9.2) | 58% | UK | N | 2 | PSYRATS |
| Lincoln et al38 | 2012 | Indiv | 29 sessions | CBT | 40 | 33.2 (10.4) | 55% | TAU | 40 | 33.1 (10.9) | 58% | GER | Y | 0 | PDI |
| Krakvik et al39 | 2013 | Indiv | 6 mo 20 sessions | CBT | 23 | 35.3 (8.9) | 65% | TAU | 22 | 37.5 (11.2) | 64% | NOR | Y | 1 | PSYRATS |
| Rathod et al40 | 2013 | Indiv | 16 weekly sessions | CA-CBT | 17 | 31.4 (12.4) | 63% | TAU | 18 | 35.6 (10.7) | 59% | UK | Y | 0 | CPRS DHS |
| Leff et al41 | 2013 | Indiv | 6 weekly sessions | Avatar CT | 14 | n.a. | n.a | TAU | 12 | n.a. | n.a | UK | Y | 1 | PSYRATS |
| Morrison et al32 | 2014 | Indiv | 9 mo | CBT | 37 | 33.0 (13.1) | 46% | TAU | 37 | 29.7 (12.0) | 59% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Birchwood et al42 | 2014 | Indiv | 9 mo | CT CH | 98 | 38.8 (12.2) | 62% | TAU | 99 | 35.9 (11.9) | 53% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Freeman et al43 | 2014 | Indiv | 6 sessions | CBT confidence | 15 | 41.9 (11.5) | 73% | TAU | 15 | 41.5 (13.1) | 60% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Tarrier et al44 | 2014 | Indiv | 24 sessions | CBT suicide | 25 | 32.6 (11.7) | n.a. | TAU | 24 | 37.3 (14.2) | n.a. | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Freeman et al45 | 2015 | Indiv | 8 sessions | CBT sleep | 24 | 39·6 (11.6) | 67% | TAU | 26 | 42·2 (13.5) | 69% | UK | N | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Naeem et al46 | 2015 | Indiv | 16 weekly sessions | CBT | 53 | 42.0 (11.6) | 17% | TAU | 49 | 38.6 (12.0) | 13% | CAN | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Habib et al47 | 2015 | Indiv | 10–16 sessions | CBT | 21 | 33.5 (10.5) | 44% | TAU | 21 | 30.2 (6.7) | 56% | PAK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Freeman et al45 | 2015 | Indiv | 8 weekly sessions | CBT-W | 73 | 40.9 (10.5) | 58% | TAU | 77 | 42.1 (12.2) | 57% | UK | Y | 0 | GPTS and PSYRATS |
| Waller et al48 | 2015 | Indiv | 6 wk | CBT-TW | 20 | 39.1 (10.5) | 75% | TAU | 11 | 43.0 (10.7) | 64% | UK | Y | 0 | DC, DD, and DP |
| Naeem et al49 | 2016 | Indiv | 12–16 sessions | CBT-GSH | 18 | 42.0 (11.5) | 44% | TAU | 15 | 38.6 (12.0) | 60% | CAN | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Freeman et al31 | 2016 | Indiv | 1 session | VR-CBT | 15 | 42.1 (13.4) | 67% | Exposure | 15 | 40.6 (14.4) | 67% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Hayward et al50 | 2017 | Indiv | 16 weekly sessions | Relating therapy | 14 | 41 (n.p) | 43% | TAU | 15 | 43 (n.p.) | 67% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Hazell et al51 | 2017 | Indiv | 8 sessions | CBT-GSH | 14 | 39.1 (10.2) | 29% | WL | 14 | 45.9 (13.5) | 50% | UK | N | 0 | HPSVQ |
| Gottlieb et al 52 | 2017 | Indiv | 10 skill modules | eCBT | 19 | 43.8 (13.2) | 47% | TAU | 18 | 40.3 (11.7) | 78% | USA | N | 1 | PSYRATS |
| Pot-Kolder et al5 | 2018 | Indiv | 16 sessions | VR-CBT | 58 | 36.5 (10) | 69% | TAU | 58 | 39.5 (10) | 72% | NL | Y | 0 | ESM |
| Morrison et al53 | 2018 | Indiv | 9 mo | CBT | 242 | 42.2 (10.7) | 73% | TAU | 245 | 42.8 (10.4) | 71% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Husain et al4 | 2017 | Indiv | 12 weekly sessions | CBT | 18 | 34.1 (9.55) | 78% | TAU | 18 | 30.5 (8.15) | 55.6% | PAK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Craig et al28 | 2018 | Indiv | 12 weekly sessions | Avatar CT | 75 | 42.5 (10.7) | 76% | SC | 75 | 42.9 (11.2) | 60% | UK | Y | 0 | PSYRATS |
| Wong et al54 | 2019 | Group | 7 weekly session + booster | CBT | 25 | 30.6 (10.6) | 24% | PE | 23 | 35.1 (12.9) | 48% | HK | N | 1 | PSYRATS, BAVQ |
Note: BAVQ-R, Beliefs About Voices Questionnaire-Revised; CA-CBT, culturally adapted CBT; CAN, Canada; CBT, cognitive behavioral therapy; CBT-GSH, cognitive-behavioral guided self-help; CBT-I, cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia; CBT-TW, “Thinking Well” cognitive-behavioral therapy; CBT-W, cognitive-behavioral therapy for worry; CH, command hallucinations; CPRS, Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale; CT, cognitive therapy; D, delusions; DC, delusional conviction; DD, delusional distress; DHS, delusions and hallucinations scale; DP, delusional preoccupation; eCBT, online cognitive-behavioral therapy; ESM, experience sampling method; fCBT, functional cognitive behavioral therapy; GER, Germany; GPTS, Green et al Paranoid Thoughts Scale; H, hallucinations; HK, Hong Kong; HPSVQ, Hamilton Program for Schizophrenia Voices Questionnaire; KOR, SK, South Korea; MADS, Maudsley Assessment of Delusions Scale; n.a., not applicable; n.p., not provided; NL, Netherlands; NOR, Norway; PAK, Pakistan; PDI, Peters et al Delusion Inventory; PE, psychoeducation; PSYRATS, Psychotic Symptoms Rating Scales; SC, supportive counseling; TAU, treatment-as-usual; VR-CBT, virtual-reality-based cognitive behavioral therapy; WL, waiting list. BAVQ comparisons included only resistance, omnipotence, and malevolence subscales.