TABLE 2.

Exosomes in sepsis and their impact on organ dysfunction.

Organs	Exosomal contents	Outcomes (ex vivo)	Outcomes (in vivo)
Lungs	Caspase-1 (30), MiR-155 (52)	Apoptosis (30)	TNF-α (52), IL-6 (52), MPO (52), MΦ infiltration (52), M1 polarization (52)
Kidneys	MiR-19b-3p (53), GPRC5B (66)	NF-κB (53), SOCS-1↓(53), ERK1/2 (66), MCP-1 (53), IL-1β (53), IL-6 (53), TNF-α (53), iNOS (53), M1 polarization (53), Tubulogenesis (66)	MCP-1 (53), IL-6 (53), MΦ infiltration (53), Tubulointerstitial inflammation (53)
Liver	HMGB1 (32), HSP90 (32), MiR-155 (70), MiR-103-3p (72)	NLRP3 (28), Caspase-1 (28), IL-1α (32), IL-1β (32), IL-6 (32), CCL2,(32) COX-2 (32), α-SMA (72), TGF-β (72), Col1a1 (72), KLF4↓ (72)	NLRP3 (28), Caspase-1 (28), MΦ and neutrophil infiltration (28), AST (28), ALT (28), LDH (28)
Cardiovascular System	NADPH (76), ROS (76, 79), RNS (76, 77, 79)	RNS (77), Myocardial dysfunction (77), Caspase-3 (79), Apoptosis (79)	Cardiac dysfunction (14) (Ejection fraction↓, Fractional shortening↓)
CNS	MiR-146a (51, 81), MiR-155 (51)	NF-κB (51), TNF-α (51), IL-1β (51), IL-6 (51), Nitric oxide (51)	NF-κB (51), TNF-α (51, 81), IL-1β (51), IL-6 (51, 81), Nitric oxide (51)

Abbreviations: MiR, microRNA; MPO, myeloperoxidase; GPRC5B, GPCR class C group 5 member B; SOCS, suppressors of cytokine signaling; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; iNOS, Inducible nitric oxide synthase; HMGB1, high mobility group box 1; HSP90, heat shock protein 90; NLRP3, nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat (NLR) and pyrin domain containing receptor 3; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; α-SMA, α-Smooth muscle actin; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; KLF4, Kruppel-like factor 4; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; ROS, reactive oxygen species; RNS, reactive nitrogen species.