Table 1.
Baseline participant characteristics (mean ± SD) and range of change following intervention (%).
| HED | WL | WL + EX | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baseline | Range of % change | Baseline | Range of % change | Baseline | Range of % change | |
| n | 20 | 21 | 20 | |||
| Male:Female | 7:13 | 7:14 | 8:12 | |||
| Age (yr) | 70.1 ± 4.8 | 70.0 ± 4.6 | 66.8 ± 3.4 | |||
| Medication use (no. of participants) | ||||||
| Statins | 9 | 7 | 7 | |||
| Metformin | 6 | 3 | 4 | |||
| Other Anti-hyperglycemic agents | 1 | 2 | 1 | |||
| Body composition | ||||||
| Weight (kg) | 97.8 ± 10.5 | −7.7 to 5.8 | 101.4 ± 20.3 | −17.1 to 1.3 | 102.9 ± 13.2 | −21.0 to (–)4.0 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 35.7 ± 4.4 | −7.8 to 5.5 | 36.1 ± 5.1 | −16.5 to 1.3 | 37.3 ± 5.4 | −17.4 to (–)3.5 |
| Fat mass (kg) | 44.7 ± 9.4 | −14.8 to 8.8 | 46.7 ± 11.2 | −36.3 to 5.9 | 47.1 ± 10.2 | −37.5 to (–)4.5 |
| Fat free mass (kg) | 53.6 ± 5.9 | −9.3 to 5.9 | 54.3 ± 12.3 | −9.0 to 3.0 | 56.1 ± 9.5 | −9.1 to 3.2 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 114.9 ± 9.9 | −10.1 to 6.6 | 116.4 ± 13.6 | −16.1 to 20.0 | 118.5 ± 14.3 | −16.7 to 5.4 |
| Abdominal AT (kg) | 20.7 ± 3.3 | −14.0 to 16.5 | 21.2 ± 2.1 | −20.6 to 0.2 | 22.7 ± 5.2 | −28.4 to to (–)4.5 |
| Abdominal subcutaneous AT (kg) | 14.3 ± 2.6 | −17.9 to 5.9 | 12.7 ± 2.6 | −19.7 to 7.6 | 14.7 ± 3.9 | −28.1 to (–)4.8 |
| Abdominal visceral AT (kg) | 6.4 ± 1.8 | −24.8 to 58.8 | 8.4 ± 3.1 | −23.2 to 16.1 | 8.0 ± 2.8 | −37.0 to 4.7 |
| Thigh intermuscular AT (kg) | 0.38 ± 0.09 | −13.1 to 42.4 | 0.42 ± 0.17 | −14.8 to 17.9 | 0.48 ± 0.14 | −33.0 to 5.2 |
| Clinical measurements | ||||||
| SBP (mmHg) | 140 ± 11 | −16.9 to 11.6 | 135 ± 15 | −29.2 to 20.8 | 135 ± 11 | −18.9 to 14.7 |
| DBP (mmHg) | 74 ± 8 | −25.0 to 26.2 | 75 ± 11 | −23.3 to 26.9 | 73 ± 12 | −23.3 to 24.1 |
| Insulin (pmol/l) | 97.9 ± 46.5 | −60.9 to 71.1 | 103.5 ± 68.8 | −58.5 to 35.8 | 109.7 ± 55.6 | −54.6 −54.6 to 46.9 |
| Glucose (mmol/l) | 6.0 ± 1.0 | −28.8 to 78.6 | 5.5 ± 0.6 | −0.8 to 0.2 | 6.1 ± 1.2 | −37.9 to 6.9 |
| HbA1C (%) | 6.3 ± 0.8 | −1.9 to 1.7 | 5.9 ± 0.4 | −12.1 to 3.3 | 6.3 ± 0.9 | −2.9 to 0.1 |
| HOMA-IR | 3.8 ± 2.5 | −62.8 to 80.1 | 4.5 ± 3.5 | −63.6 to 29.8 | 5.0 ± 3.7 | −61.6 to 57.1 |
| GIR/I (mg/kgFFM/min/Insulin) | 0.08 ± 0.04 | −53.2 to 100 | 0.08 ± 0.05 | −40.5 to 196 | 0.07 ± 0.04 | 13.5 to 116 |
| Triglycerides (mmol/l) | 1.66 ± 0.63 | −43.4 to 91.8 | 1.54 ± 0.76 | −76.6 to 83.6 | 1.80 ± 0.76 | −81.2 to 162 |
| Cholesterol (mmol/l) | 4.94 ± 0.98 | −30.5 to 60.3 | 4.64 ± 0.95 | −24.8 to 80.1 | 4.76 ± 0.98 | −43.3 to 16.8 |
| LDL-Cholesterol (mmol/l) | 2.79 ± 0.85 | −44.1 to 100 | 2.63 ± 0.86 | −20.9 to 201 | 2.76 ± 0.85 | −52.3 to 52.5 |
| HDL-Cholesterol (mmol/l) | 1.38 ± 0.44 | −13.2 to 43.6 | 1.30 ± 0.38 | −15 to 51.3 | 1.17 ± 0.19 | −25.0 to 22.7 |
| VLDL-Cholesterol (mmol/l) | 0.77 ± 0.29 | −44.8 to 90 | 0.71 ± 0.35 | −77.0 to 83.3 | 0.83 ± 0.35 | −81.5 to 170 |
| Plasma free fatty acids (mmol/l) | 0.47 ± 0.20 | −93.1 to 885 | 0.53 ± 0.12 | -42.4 to 33.1 | 0.56 ± 0.22 | −74.8 to 216 |
| Aerobic fitness | ||||||
| VO2max (L/min) | 1.7 ± 0.5 | −26.2 to 34.9 | 1.5 ± 0.5 | −30.9 to 80.3 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | −13.3 to 31.1 |
| VO2max (ml/kgFFM/min) | 31.2 ± 7.4 | −27.8 to 27.4 | 27.8 ± 6.9 | −28.0 to 80.4 | 30.8 ± 4.6 | −9.2 to 35.4 |
| ATPmax | 0.46 ± 0.13 | −45.6 to 91.7 | 0.44 ± 0.09 | −33.5 to 76.7 | 0.56 ± 0.23 | −24.3 to 149 |
| One-step clamp (Values during steady state) | ||||||
| Suppression of FFA (%) | 82.8 ± 25.9 | −904 to 14.1 | 93.5 ± 5.8 | −92.6 to 16.8 | 90.4 ± 10.0 | −6.2 to 27.1 |
| Suppression of EGP (%) | 78.6 ± 20.8 | −37.9 to 67.7 | 73.6 ± 11.6 | −77.6 to 34.7 | 69.8 ± 25.2 | −80.6 to 65.5 |
| Rate of glucose disposal (mg/min/Insulin) | 4.7 ± 2.1 | −46.0 to 236 | 4.7 ± 2.2 | −32.4 to 110 | 4.7 ± 2.5 | −10.2 to 385 |
| Skeletal muscle histology | ||||||
| Type I fiber proportion (%) | 40.4 ± 11.4 | −27.1 to 47.7 | 41.8 ± 15.7 | −38.5 to 28.9 | 38.9 ± 15.3 | −27.7 to 36.6 |
| Type IIA fiber proportion (%) | 36.2 ± 13.5 | −46.3 to 17.9 | 32.7 ± 13.3 | −20.4 to 23.2 | 33.2 ± 12.0 | −9.2 to 24.8 |
| Type IIA/IIX fiber proportion (%) | 8.4 ± 5.6 | −7.1 to 5.6 | 6.7 ± 6.2 | −10.1 to 11.2 | 6.9 ± 7.4 | −29.8 to 14.1 |
| Type IIX fiber proportion (%) | 14.7 ± 13.1 | −12.7 to 45.2 | 18.6 ± 13.5 | −28.1 to 28.3 | 20.6 ± 13.2 | −31.9 to 22.2 |
| Type I CSA (μm2) | 4,365 ± 991 | −36.3 to 46.8 | 4,082 ± 939 | −57.8 to 77.1 | 4,511 ± 1,322 | −36.8 to 46.3 |
| Type IIA CSA (μm2) | 4,303 ± 1,503 | −72.5 to 103 | 3,470 ± 848 | −38.6 to 58.8 | 4,101 ± 1,276 | −48.1 to 28.5 |
| Type IIA/IIX CSA (μm2) | 3,739 ± 1,520 | −60.4 to 137 | 3,585 ± 1,899 | −76.9 to 40.5 | 4,068 ± 2,211 | −72.2 to 48.4 |
| Type IIX CSA (μm2) | 3,363 ± 1,718 | −49.7 to 190 | 3,340 ± 1,339 | −63.2 to 63.7 | 3,131 ± 1,294 | −44.5 to 23.7 |
| Capillary density (# capillaries/fiber CSA) | 1.2 ± 0.5 | −35.7 to 39.2 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | −85.0 to 123 | 1.2 ± 0.6 | −49.0 to 122 |
Range of change (%) = post-intervention − pre-intervention/pre-intervention*100%, with the exception of HbA1C, Suppression of FFA and EGP, and fiber type proportions, in which % range of change = post-intervention − pre-intervention.
AT, adipose tissue; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HOMA-IR, Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance; TG, triglycerides; LDL, low-density lipoproteins; HDL, high-density lipoproteins; VLDL, very low-density lipoproteins; FFA, free fatty acids; GIR/I, Glucose Infusion Rate/Steady State Insulin; EGP, endogenous glucose production; CSA, cross-sectional area.
Sample size differs for the following characteristics.
Fasting Glucose: HED, n = 18; WL, n = 20; WL + EX, n = 19.
Abdominal AT, SAT, VAT, thigh IMAT: HED, n = 12; WL, n = 7; WL + EX, n = 13.
GIR/I, Fasting Insulin, HOMA-IR: HED, n = 19; WL, n = 13; WL + EX, n = 12.
Plasma FFA: HED, n = 18; WL, n = 17; WL + EX, n = 17.
VO2max: HED, n = 20; WL, n = 19; WL + EX, n = 20.
ATPmax: HED, n = 13; WL, n = 8; WL + EX, n = 11.