Table 4.

Pulmonary effects of e-cigarettes [43], [86], [87], [88], [89].

Pulmonary inflammation

Oxidative stress

Protease-mediated lung tissue damage

Increased airway hyper-reactivity

Increased airway resistance

Decreased antimicrobial activity

Down regulation of host defence genes

Increased resistance of bacteria to antimicrobial factors

High levels of particle deposition

Increased epithelial necrosis and cytotoxicity

Direct mucociliary dysfunction

Acquired cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator dysfunction, increased mucus viscosity and reduced Airway Surface Liquid height leading to impaired mucociliary clearance