Table 3.
Reported assays for coronavirus-specific whole virus or viral proteins detection
| Coronavirus subgroup | Analyte | Assay method | Detection time | Concentration range | Limit of detection | Tested sample | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | ELISA | 3.5 h | – | 2.5 ng/ml [for naso-pharyngeal aspirate] and 0.4 ng/ml [for urine] | Nasopharyngeal aspirate samples and urine | [118] |
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | WB | – | – | – | Spiked recombinant N protein solutions | [132] |
| HCoV-229E | |||||||
| HCoV-OC43 | |||||||
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | Immunoswab detection (pseudo-ELISA) | ~ 1 h 30 min | – | 0.5 pg/swab (10 pg/ml) | pig nasopharyngeal aspirate samples | [129] |
| SARS-CoV | Virus (spike protein) | ELISA | 2 h 5 min | – | 19 ng/ml | Spiked spike protein solutions | [120] |
| MERS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | ELISA | 1 h 12 min | – | 1 ng/ml | Spiked recombinant N protein solutions | [128] |
| MERS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | LFIA | 30 min | – | 103.7–104.2 TCID50/ml | Spiked nasopharyngeal aspirate samples | [130] |
| MERS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | ELISA | 1 h 12 min | – | – | – | [131] |
| SARS-CoV-2 | Viral protein (N protein) | LFIA (Sofia SARS Antigen FIA) | ~ 15 min | – | 113 TCID50/ml | Nasopharyngeal and nasal swabs | [133, 134] |
| MERS-CoV | Virus (spike protein) | Electrochemical (SWV) | 20 min | 1 pg/ml–100 ng/ml | 1.04 pg/ml | Spiked nasal samples | [121] |
| HCoV-OC43 | Viral protein (N protein) | 10 pg/ml–10 μg/ml | 0.4 pg/ml | ||||
| SARS-CoV-2 | Virus (spike protein) | Electrochemical (DPV) | – | 1 fM–1 μM | 10 fM | Spiked saliva samples | [122] |
| Electrochemical (voltage change using the in-house device” eCovSens”) | 1 min | ||||||
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | Electrical (FET) | 10 min | nM range | – | Spiked N protein solutions | [135] |
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | Electrical (FET) | 10 min | 5–50 nM | – | Spiked N protein solutions | [136] |
| SARS-CoV-2 | Virus (spike protein) | Electrical (FET) | – | – | 100 fg/ml | Nasopharyngeal aspirate swabs | [27] |
| SARS-CoV-2 | Virus (spike protein) | Electrical (FET) | ~ 2 min | – | 0.2 pM | Spiked spike protein solutions | [123] |
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | Optical (SPR) | – | – | – | Spiked N protein solutions | [137] |
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | Optical (chemiluminescence) | 3 h | – | 20 pg/ml | Spiked recombinant N protein solutions | [138] |
| Optical (fluorescence) | 4 h | 2 pg/ml | |||||
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | Optical (LSPCF) | – | 0.1 pg/ml–1 ng/ml | 0.1 pg/ml | Serum | [125] |
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | Optical (LSPCF) | 2 h | 0.1 pg/ml–1 ng/ml | 0.1 pg/ml | Serum | [127] |
| SARS-CoV | Viral protein (N protein) | Optical (fluorescence) | 1 h | – | 0.1 pg/ml | Spiked recombinant N protein solutions | [139] |
| SARS-CoV-2 | Viral protein (N protein) | Optical (fluorescence) | 10 min | – | Not specified | Nasopharyngeal aspirate swabs and urine | [126] |
| SARS-CoV | Virus | Mass-based (QCM) | 17 min | 1–4 μg/ml | 0.6 μg/ml | Spiked sputum samples | [124] |
N, nucleocapsid; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, WB, western blot; LFIA, lateral flow immunoassay; TCID50, 50% tissue culture infectious dose; SWV, square-wave voltammetry; DPV, differential pulse voltammetry; FET, field-effect transistor; SPR, surface plasmon resonance; LSPCF, localized surface plasmon-coupled fluorescence; QCM, quartz crystal microbalance