Table 2.
Comparison of outcomes pre- and during the COVID-19 outbreak (N = 583)
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|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-COVID-19 | Peri-COVID-19 | |||
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| Mean (CI)/n (%) | Mean (CI)/n (%) | Paired mean difference (CI) | P-value | |
| DJG Loneliness total (0–6)a,b | 1.6 (1.4 to 1.7) | 2.9 (2.7 to 3.1) | 1.35 (1.16 to 1.55) | <0.001c |
| Not lonely (0–1) | 346 (59.5)d | 174 (29.9)d | <0.001c | |
| Moderately lonely (2–4) | 185 (31.8)d | 247 (42.4)d | ||
| Severely lonely (5–6) | 51 (8.8)d | 161 (27.7)d | ||
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| Social loneliness (0–3)a | 0.8 (0.7 to 0.9) | 1.7 (1.6 to 1.8) | 0.85 (0.72 to 0.98) | <0.001c |
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| Emotional loneliness (0–3)a | 0.7 (0.7 to 0.8) | 1.2 (1.1 to 1.3) | 0.50 (0.39 to 0.60) | <0.001c |
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| GAD-7 (0–21)a,b | 2.5 (2.2 to 2.8) | 3.0 (2.7 to 3.3) | 0.48 (0.11 to 0.86) | 0.011c |
| Very mild (0–4) | 470 (80.6) | 424 (72.7) | 0.011c | |
| Mild (5–9) | 78 (13.4) | 122 (20.9) | ||
| Moderate (10–14) | 20 (3.4) | 23 (3.9) | ||
| Severe (15–21) | 15 (2.6) | 14 (2.4) | ||
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| ISI (0–28)a,b | 6.9 (6.5 to 7.3) | 7.5 (7.1 to 7.9) | 0.66 (0.19 to 1.13) | 0.006c |
| No clinically significant insomnia (0–7) | 351 (60.2) | 318 (54.6)d | <0.001c | |
| Sub-threshold insomnia (8–14) | 169 (29.0) | 195 (33.5)d | ||
| Moderate/severe insomnia (15–28) | 63 (10.8) | 69 (11.9)d | ||
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| PHQ-9 (0–27)a,b | 4.4 (4.0 to 4.7) | 4.5 (4.2 to 4.9) | 0.19 (−0.21 to 0.59) | 0.359 |
| Normal (0–4) | 364 (62.4) | 351 (60.2) | 0.358 | |
| Mild (5–9) | 153 (26.2) | 164 (28.1) | ||
| Moderate (10–14) | 50 (8.6) | 42 (7.2) | ||
| Moderately severe/severe (15–27) | 16 (2.7) | 26 (4.5) | ||
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| Missed medical appointmentc,e | 93 (16.5) | 124 (22.0) | 0.014f | |
a
Paired t-test was used to compare the mean differences of psychological outcomes.
b
Wilcoxon’s signed-rank test was used to test the difference of clinically relevant categories.
c
McNemar’s test was used to determine the difference in the proportion of subjects’ missed medical appointments.
d
582 responders answered for this item.
e
564 patients’ data were received for this item.
f
P-value < 0.05. DJG = De Jong Gierveld. GAD-7 = 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder. ISI = Insomnia Severity Index. PHQ-9 = 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire.