Table 1.
Characteristics of mothers-neonates.
| All (n = 86) | Cluster I (n = 43) | Cluster II (n = 43) | P value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal characteristics | ||||
| Age (years) | 31.12 ± 4.12 | 31.61 ± 4.31 | 30.65 ± 3.87 | 0.39 |
| Pre-gestational BMI (Kg/m2) | 23.14 ± 4.27 | 23.13 ± 4.79 | 23.15 ± 3.72 | 0.55 |
| Weight gain during pregnancy | 13.05 ± 4.16 | 13.45 ± 3.96 | 12.65 ± 4.38 | 0.45 |
| Antibiotic during pregnancy (%) | 30 (34.88) | 19 (44.19) | 11 (25.58) | 0.08 |
| Gestational age (weeks) | 39.39 ± 1.15 | 39.2 ± 1.03 | 39.6 ± 1.21 | 0.12 |
| Mode of delivery: Vaginal birth (%) | 60 (69.77) | 22 (51.16) | 38 (88.37) | <0.0001 |
| Infant characteristics | ||||
| Gender: Female (%) | 40 (46.51) | 19 (44.19) | 21 (48.84) | 0.66 |
| Birth weight (kg) | 3.35 ± 0.42 | 3.36 ± 0.46 | 3.33 ± 0.38 | 0.69 |
| Antibiotic at birth | 32 (37.21) | 22 (51.16) | 10 (23.26) | <0.0001 |
| Exclusive breastfeeding until 6 month | 59 (68.61) | 24 (55.81) | 35 (81.4) | 0.01 |
| BMI z-score ˦ at birth | −0.24 ± 1.04 | −0.30 ± 1.23 | −0.17 ± 0.87 | 0.01 |
| 1 month | −0.47 ± 0.99 | −0.46 ± 1.08 | −0.49 ± 0.89 | 0.02 |
| 6 months | −0.32 ± 0.95 | −0.45 ± 1.04 | −0.20 ± 0.86 | 0.34 |
| 12 months | 0.06 ± 1.17 | 0.46 ± 1.28 | 0.08 ± 1.04 | 0.16 |
| 18 months | 0.14 ± 1.16 | 0.21 ± 1.33 | 0.07 ± 0.96 | 0.04 |
| WFL z-score ˦ at birth | −0.37 ± 1.23 | −0.48 ± 1.42 | −0.26 ± 1.01 | 0.01 |
| 1 month | −0.55 ± 1.24 | −0.52 ± 1.38 | −0.58 ± 1.10 | 0.01 |
| 6 months | −0.19 ± 0.94 | −0.28 ± 1.02 | −0.09 ± 0.86 | 0.44 |
| 12 months | 0.08 ± 1.10 | 0.06 ± 1.23 | 0.10 ± 0.97 | 0.16 |
| 18 months | 0.13 ± 1.09 | 0.19 ± 1.25 | 0.07 ± 0.91 | 0.05 |
| Maternal Dietary intakes | ||||
| MD score | 8.8 ± 1.7 | 8.3 ± 1.7 | 9.1 ± 1.7 | 0.17 |
| Total protein (g/day) | 112.7 ± 18.4 | 110.4 ± 18.2 | 115.0 ± 18.6 | 0.25 |
| Animal protein (g/day) | 60.7 ± 18.0 | 60.9 ± 19.1 | 60.5 ± 17.1 | 0.90 |
| Vegetal protein (g/day) | 49.2 ± 13.6 | 46.7 ± 11.6 | 51.8 ± 15.0 | 0.08 |
| Lipids (g/day) | 111.1 ± 17.5 | 109.9 ± 19.4 | 112.4 ± 15.5 | 0.52 |
| Cholesterol (g/day) | 295.78 ± 74.7 | 295.5 ± 72.12 | 296.0 ± 78.1 | 0.98 |
| SFA | 22.8 ± 5.5 | 23.34 ± 5.8 | 22.3 ± 5.1 | 0.37 |
| TRANS | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.30 |
| MUFA | 46.4 ± 9.9 | 45.7 ± 11.7 | 47.2 ± 7.6 | 0.50 |
| PUFA | 17.6 ± 4.4 | 18.3 ± 5.3 | 16.8 ± 3.2 | 0.12 |
| n-6 CLA | 0.004 ± 0.01 | 0.003 ± 0.01 | 0.005 ± 0.01 | 0.13 |
| n-3 ALA | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.33 |
| n-3 EPA | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.07 |
| n-3 DPA | 0.1 ± 0.05 | 0.06 ± 0.04 | 0.08 ± 0.05 | 0.04 |
| n-3 DHA | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.04 |
| Carbohydrates (g/day) | 259.34 ± 40.6 | 264.8 ± 45.4 | 253.8 ± 34.7 | 0.22 |
| Polysaccharides (g/day) | 137.2 ± 36.8 | 143.78 ± 42.2 | 130.5 ± 29.4 | 0.10 |
| Lactose (g/day) | 11.3 ± 10.4 | 13.9 ± 10.8 | 8.7 ± 9.3 | 0.02 |
| Total dietary fiber (g/day) | 37.5 ± 12.0 | 34.1 ± 8.8 | 40.9 ± 13.8 | 0.01 |
| Cellulose (g/day) | 8.8 ± 3.2 | 8.1 ± 2.7 | 9.5 ± 3.6 | 0.05 |
| Insoluble dietary fiber (g/day) | 23.2 ± 8.4 | 21.4 ± 6.6 | 25.2 ± 9.6 | 0.04 |
| Insoluble hemicellulose (g/day) | 7.9 ± 3.6 | 7.1 ± 2.9 | 8.8 ± 4.0 | 0.03 |
| Insoluble pectin (g/day) | 2.8 ± 1.1 | 2.5 ± 0.8 | 3.1 ± 1.3 | 0.01 |
| Soluble dietary fiber (g/day) | 4.6 ± 1.5 | 4.3 ± 1.2 | 5.0 ± 1.7 | 0.05 |
| Soluble hemicellulose (g/day) | 2.9 ± 1.0 | 2.7 ± 0.9 | 3.1 ± 1.1 | 0.10 |
| Soluble pectin (g/day) | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 0.6 | 0.07 |
| Starch (g/day) | 29.2 ± 12.5 | 29.3 ± 12.9 | 29.1 ± 12.3 | 0.94 |
| Klason lignin (g/day) | 3.45 ± 1.2 | 3.4 ± 1.1 | 3.5 ± 1.2 | 0.81 |
| Phytosterols (mg/day) | 137.5 ± 37.5 | 132.8 ± 36.6 | 142.4 ± 38.2 | 0.25 |
| Polyphenols (mg/day) | 1870.7 ± 918.4 | 1636.7 ± 596.2 | 2110.5 ± 1117.3 | 0.02 |
For numerical data, results are shown as media±SD and for the categorical data, results are shown as number of cases (percentage %)
Student T-test and Chi-Squared test were performed to assess the significance of the differences in the characteristics between clusters section in numerical variables and categorical variables, respectively. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
˦Multivariate ANOVA model adjusted for cluster, mode of birth, lactation and maternal pre-gestational BMI. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. BMI and WL z-scores were obtained with WHO curves adjusted by age and gender.
Diets were adjusted by total energy intake to 2500 Kcal/day. Each nutrients value was extracted by the food frequency questionnaire using the Centro de Enseñanza Superior de Nutrición Humana y Dietética (CESNID) tables. Saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), trans-unsaturated fatty acids (TRANS); omega-6 Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA); omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid (ALA); omega-3 Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA); omega-3 Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA); omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
MD: Mediterranean Diet Adherence score according to PREDIMED questionnaires.