Table 1.
Heart-Derived Hormones and Autocrine/Paracrine Factors
| Pathophysiological Role | Clinical Relevance | Ref. # | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Endocrine hormones | |||
| ANP | Natriuresis and vasodilation | HF | (67,71) |
| Therapeutic target (sacubitril) | |||
| BNP | Natriuresis and vasodilation | HF, biomarker | (70,71) |
| Therapeutic target (Sacubitril) | |||
| GDF-15 | Inhibiting body growth | Biomarker for ACS, HF | (13, 14, 15) |
| Myostatin (GDF-8) | Reducing skeletal muscle mass | HF, AMI, cardiac cachexia | (50,52,76,77) |
| Autocrine/paracrine factors | |||
| Activin A | Protecting cardiomyocyte | MI | (78) |
| CNP | Vasodilation | HF, CH | (79, 80, 81, 82, 83) |
| CTRP9 | Cardioprotection | CH, MI, HF | (84, 85, 86) |
| ET-1 | Promoting cardiomyocyte survival | HF | (87) |
| FGF-2 | Inhibition of excessive autophagy and increase of ubiquitinated protein clearance | MI | (88, 89, 90) |
| FGF-9 | Preserving systolic function | MI | (91) |
| FGF-16 | Preventing cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis | CH | (92) |
| FGF-21 | Regulating cardiac metabolism; antihypertrophic | AMI, CHD, HF, DCM | (93,94) |
| FGF-23 | Promoting fibrosis and diastolic dysfunction | CH, MI | (95,96) |
| FSTL1 | Cardioprotection | HF, ACS, CH | (97, 98, 99, 100, 101) |
| FSTL3 | Antagonizing Activin A cardioprotection | MI, CH | (78,102) |
| IL-33/sST2 | Antihypertrophic and antifibrosis | AMI, HF, CH | (103,104) |
| sST2 is a biomarker | |||
| for HF and AMI | |||
| MANF | Cardioprotection | MI, CH | (105,106) |
| miRNA-1/208a(b)/499/30a | Post-transcriptional regulation | AMI | (107, 108, 109, 110, 111) |
| PI16 | Inhibiting hypertrophy | HF, CH | (112) |
| sFRP2 | Antagonist of Wnt signaling | MI | (113,114) |
| sFRP3 | Antagonist of Wnt signaling | HF, MI, ACS | (115,116) |
AMI = acute myocardial infarction; ACS = acute coronary syndrome; ANP = atrial natriuretic peptide; BNP = brain natriuretic peptide; CH = cardiac hypertrophy; CHD = coronary heart disease; CNP = C-type natriuretic peptide; CTRP9 = C1q/tumor necrosis factor-related protein-9; DCM = diabetic cardiomyopathy; ET = endothelin; FGF = fibroblast growth factor; FSTL1 = follistatin-like 1; GDF = growth differentiation factor; HF = heart failure; IL = interleukin; MANF = mesencephalic astrocyte−derived neurotrophic factor; MI = myocardial infarction; miRNA = microRNA; PI16 = protease inhibitor 16; sFRP = secreted frizzled-related protein; sST2 = soluble suppression of tumorigenesis-2.