Table 3.
Maternal and offspring’s characteristics according to maternal intakes of energy, macronutrients and vitamins during pregnancy
(Mean values and percentages)
| Maternal | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean age (years) | Highly educated (%) | Smoker (%) | Alcohol user (%) | Parity (%) | Pregnancy weight gain (%) | Offspring | ||||||
| 0 | 1 | ≥2 | <7 kg | 7–12 kg | ≥12 kg | Offspring boy (%) | Gestational age (weeks) | |||||
| Energy | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (2500 kcal§) | 31·4‡ | 20·4‡ | 5·0‡ | 3·2‡ | 31·7 | 41·0 | 25·4‡ | 14·6 | 49·2 | 34·5‡ | 51·1 | 38·82‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·9 | 22·1 | 4·2 | 2·6 | 41·1 | 37·3 | 19·2 | 16·3 | 52·4 | 29·3 | 51·3 | 38·89 |
| Macronutrients | ||||||||||||
| Carbohydrate (%E) | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (57·5 %) | 30·8‡ | 18·8‡ | 4·8‡ | 2·3‡ | 39·7 | 37·7 | 20·4 | 16·4 | 51·1 | 30·8‡ | 51·2 | 38·87 |
| Insufficient | 31·1 | 23·7 | 4·0 | 2·9 | 39·6 | 38·0 | 20·0 | 15·8 | 52·4 | 29·7 | 51·3 | 38·87 |
| Fat (%E) | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (25 %) | 31·1‡ | 23·2‡ | 4·0‡ | 2·7‡ | 39·8 | 37·9 | 19·9† | 15·8 | 52·3 | 29·8‡ | 51·4 | 38·88‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·7 | 17·0 | 5·5 | 2·8 | 39·0 | 37·8 | 21·0 | 16·8 | 50·5 | 31·1 | 51·0 | 38·86 |
| Protein (%E) | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (16·5 %) | 31·4‡ | 23·8‡ | 3·8‡ | 2·8‡ | 37·0 | 39·5 | 21·3‡ | 15·4 | 52·2 | 30·3‡ | 51·2 | 38·86‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·1 | 17·4 | 5·4 | 2·4 | 45·7 | 34·1 | 17·5 | 17·4 | 51·2 | 29·7 | 51·4 | 38·90 |
| Total dietary fibre | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (18 g) | 32·2‡ | 23·4‡ | 3·2‡ | 3·0‡ | 29·6 | 42·2 | 26·2‡ | 16·3 | 50·8 | 31·2 | 50·8 | 38·81 |
| Insufficient | 30·9 | 21·7 | 4·4 | 2·7 | 40·5 | 37·5 | 19·6 | 16·0 | 52·0 | 30·0 | 51·3 | 38·88 |
| Vitamins | ||||||||||||
| Vitamin A | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (500 μg) | 31·6‡ | 25·3‡ | 3·7‡ | 3·0‡ | 34·2 | 40·8 | 22·9‡ | 15·7 | 52·5 | 29·8‡ | 51·3 | 38·86‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·6 | 19·8 | 4·6 | 2·5 | 42·8 | 36·1 | 18·5 | 16·2 | 51·6 | 30·3 | 51·3 | 38·88 |
| Vitamin K | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (150 μg) | 31·6‡ | 24·3‡ | 3·4‡ | 2·8† | 36·5 | 39·9 | 21·5‡ | 15·9 | 52·6 | 29·5‡ | 51·2 | 38·86† |
| Insufficient | 30·4 | 19·1 | 5·3 | 2·5 | 43·1 | 35·7 | 18·7 | 16·2 | 51·a2 | 30·8 | 51·4 | 38·89 |
| Vitamin E | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (6 mg) | 31·7‡ | 24·7‡ | 3·6‡ | 3·0† | 35·6 | 40·3 | 21·9‡ | 15·4 | 52·0 | 30·5‡ | 51·4 | 38·86‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·5 | 20·0 | 4·8 | 2·5 | 42·2 | 36·3 | 19·0 | 16·4 | 51·8 | 29·9 | 51·3 | 38·89 |
| Vitamin D | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (5·5 μg) | 31·5‡ | 22·6* | 3·9* | 2·9 | 31·4 | 42·8 | 23·6‡ | 16·3 | 51·6 | 30·1 | 51·4 | 38·83‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·9 | 21·7 | 4·4 | 2·7 | 40·8 | 37·1 | 19·7 | 16·0 | 52·0 | 30·1 | 51·3 | 38·88 |
| Vitamin C | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (95 mg) | 31·6‡ | 25·0‡ | 3·2‡ | 2·7 | 36·7 | 39·9 | 21·2‡ | 15·7 | 52·2 | 30·4‡ | 51·4 | 38·87 |
| Insufficient | 30·7 | 20·2 | 4·9 | 2·7 | 41·1 | 36·8 | 19·6 | 16·2 | 51·8 | 30·0 | 51·3 | 38·88 |
| Vitamin B6 | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (1·2 mg) | 31·7‡ | 25·0‡ | 3·5‡ | 3·0‡ | 34·1 | 41·1 | 22·7‡ | 15·4 | 52·1 | 30·5‡ | 51·2 | 38·85‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·7 | 20·7 | 4·6 | 2·6 | 41·6 | 36·7 | 19·2 | 16·2 | 51·8 | 30·0 | 51·3 | 38·88 |
| Folate | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (400 μg) | 31·9‡ | 23·1† | 3·9* | 3·1* | 31·4 | 41·6 | 24·9‡ | 16·3 | 51·3 | 30·7‡ | 51·3 | 38·83‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·9 | 21·7 | 4·4 | 2·6 | 40·7 | 37·4 | 19·5 | 16·0 | 52·0 | 30·0 | 51·3 | 38·88 |
| Vitamin B12 | ||||||||||||
| Sufficient (2·3 μg) | 31·3‡ | 23·4‡ | 4·1‡ | 2·9‡ | 37·2 | 39·4 | 21·1‡ | 15·9 | 52·3 | 29·7‡ | 51·3 | 38·86‡ |
| Insufficient | 30·2 | 17·4 | 5·0 | 2·2 | 46·4 | 33·5 | 17·6 | 16·4 | 50·7 | 31·2 | 51·3 | 38·91 |
The Wilcoxon rank-sum test and the χ2 test were used to compare between sufficient and insufficient groups for continuous and categorical variables, respectively (*P < 0·05, † P < 0·001, ‡ P < 0·001).
§
To convert energy values from kcal to kJ multiply by 4·184.