Table 4.
Associations of maternal intakes of energy and macronutrients during pregnancy with the offspring’s birth size*
(Mean values with their standard errors)
| Quartiles of energy and macronutrient intakes | Ptrend | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | ||||||||||
| Mean | se | Mean | se | Mean | se | Mean | se | ||||||
| Energy (kcal†) | 1075 | 1466 | 1800 | 2650 | |||||||||
| No. of participants | 19 716 | 19 654 | 19 736 | 19 687 | |||||||||
| Birth weight (g) | 3026 | 2·0 | 3031 | 2·0 | 3036 | 2·0 | 3036 | 2·0 | 0·004 | ||||
| Birth length (cm) | 48·94 | 0·01 | 48·96 | 0·01 | 48·97 | 0·01 | 48·97 | 0·01 | 0·41 | ||||
| Head circumference (cm) | 33·18 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·20 | 0·01 | 0·34 | ||||
| Chest circumference (cm) | 31·77 | 0·01 | 31·78 | 0·01 | 31·79 | 0·01 | 31·81 | 0·01 | 0·11 | ||||
| Ponderal index (kg/m3) | 25·76 | 0·02 | 25·78 | 0·02 | 25·79 | 0·02 | 25·82 | 0·02 | 0·17 | ||||
| Macronutrients | |||||||||||||
| Carbohydrate (%E) | 45·1 | 52·9 | 57·7 | 64·9 | |||||||||
| No. of participants | 19 698 | 19 698 | 19 699 | 19 698 | |||||||||
| Birth weight (g) | 3030 | 2·0 | 3031 | 2·0 | 3037 | 2·0 | 3030 | 0·20 | 0·07 | ||||
| Birth length (cm) | 48·93 | 0·01 | 48·95 | 0·01 | 48·96 | 0·01 | 49·00 | 0·01 | 0·002 | ||||
| Head circumference (cm) | 33·20 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 0·92 | ||||
| Chest circumference (cm) | 31·79 | 0·01 | 31·78 | 0·01 | 31·79 | 0·01 | 31·78 | 0·01 | 0·85 | ||||
| Ponderal index (kg/m3) | 25·84 | 0·02 | 25·78 | 0·02 | 25·78 | 0·02 | 25·76 | 0·02 | 0·02 | ||||
| Fat (%E) | 21·7 | 27·8 | 31·8 | 38·3 | |||||||||
| No. of participants | 19 698 | 19 697 | 19 700 | 19 698 | |||||||||
| Birth weight (g) | 3032 | 2·0 | 3035 | 2·0 | 3033 | 2·0 | 3030 | 0·20 | 0·58 | ||||
| Birth length (cm) | 48·98 | 0·01 | 48·97 | 0·01 | 48·95 | 0·01 | 48·94 | 0·01 | 0·10 | ||||
| Head circumference (cm) | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 0·98 | ||||
| Chest circumference (cm) | 31·78 | 0·01 | 31·79 | 0·01 | 31·79 | 0·01 | 31·80 | 0·01 | 0·73 | ||||
| Ponderal index (kg/m3) | 25·75 | 0·02 | 25·79 | 0·02 | 25·80 | 0·02 | 25·82 | 0·02 | 0·05 | ||||
| Protein (%E) | 11·1 | 12·9 | 14·1 | 16·2 | |||||||||
| No. of participants | 19 698 | 19 697 | 19 700 | 19 698 | |||||||||
| Birth weight (g) | 3028 | 2·0 | 3035 | 2·0 | 3034 | 2·0 | 3032 | 2·0 | 0·21 | ||||
| Birth length (cm) | 48·95 | 0·01 | 48·97 | 0·01 | 48·98 | 0·01 | 48·94 | 0·01 | 0·12 | ||||
| Head circumference (cm) | 33·18 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·20 | 0·01 | 33·20 | 0·01 | 0·55 | ||||
| Chest circumference (cm) | 31·79 | 0·01 | 31·79 | 0·01 | 31·78 | 0·01 | 31·79 | 0·01 | 0·75 | ||||
| Ponderal index (kg/m3) | 25·78 | 0·02 | 25·79 | 0·02 | 25·77 | 0·02 | 25·82 | 0·02 | 0·23 | ||||
| Total dietary fibre (g/1000 kcal) | 3·9 | 5·3 | 6·5 | 8·7 | |||||||||
| No. of participants | 19 698 | 19 698 | 19 699 | 19 698 | |||||||||
| Birth weight (g) | 3026 | 2·0 | 3034 | 2·0 | 3034 | 2·0 | 3035 | 2·0 | 0·02 | ||||
| Birth length (cm) | 48·89 | 0·01 | 48·97 | 0·01 | 48·97 | 0·01 | 49·01 | 0·01 | <0·001 | ||||
| Head circumference (cm) | 33·17 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 33·21 | 0·01 | 33·19 | 0·01 | 0·05 | ||||
| Chest circumference (cm) | 31·78 | 0·01 | 31·80 | 0·01 | 31·80 | 0·01 | 31·78 | 0·01 | 0·48 | ||||
| Ponderal index (kg/m3) | 25·85 | 0·02 | 25·78 | 0·02 | 25·79 | 0·02 | 25·74 | 0·02 | 0·001 | ||||
Mean values with their standard errors were adjusted for maternal age (continuous), education (junior high school/high school, higher professional school/vocational school/junior college or university/graduate school), household income (<2, 2–<4, 4–<6 or ≥6 million Japanese yen), height, prepregnancy BMI (<18·5, 18·5–<25, 25–<30 or ≥30 kg/m2), pregnancy weight gain (<7, 7–12 or >12 kg), parity (0, 1 or ≥2), smoking (never, stopped before or after knowing pregnancy, current) and alcohol consumption (never, former or current), mother’s thyroid disease (yes or no), use of folate supplement (yes or no), offspring sex (boy or girl) and gestational age (continuous) according to the quartiles of nutrients after log transformation.
To convert energy values from kcal to kJ multiply by 4·184.