Fig. 4.

Sex differences in the effects of AD and diet on peripheral inflammation and hypothalamic expression of inflammation-related genes. a–d Plasma concentrations of cytokines. Blood was collected following a 5 h fasting period just prior to euthanasia and assayed for 23 cytokines, with significant group differences seen for a IL-10, b IL-12 (p40), c MIP-1α, and d MIP-1β. N = 3–4/group for all plasma markers. e–g Gene expression levels in visceral fat related to inflammation, including e TNF-α, f IL-1β, g IL-6. h–l Gene expression levels in homogenate of the whole hypothalamus related to inflammation. Hypothalamus was collected following a 5-h fasting period just prior to euthanasia and assayed for h TNF-α, i IL-1β, j IL-6, k Iba1, l GFAP. N = 5–8/group for all gene expression analyses in the hypothalamus. * = diet effect p < 0.05; *** = diet effect p < 0.001; **** = diet effect p < 0.0001; $ = sex effect p < 0.05; $$ = sex effect p < 0.01; $$$$ = sex effect p < 0.0001; ^ = AD effect p < 0.05; ^^ = AD effect p < 0.01; ^^^ = AD effect p < 0.001; ^^^^ = AD effect p < 0.0001