Table 1.

Summary of Beecher's and Pappworth's findings.

The ‘Beecher Bombshell’: Henry Beecher	Human Guinea Pigs: Maurice Pappworth
22 examples of ethical misconduct to research participants including:	14 examples of ethical misconduct to research participants including:
•Withholding proven treatments: e.g. antibiotics	•Student paid to undergo experimental cardiac catheterization
Effect: some participants developed adverse events (rheumatic fever, nephritis), some died	Effect: patient's heart stopped and patient went into shock. Patient recovered following resuscitation.
Alleged research misconduct: participants not fully informed	Alleged research misconduct: Vulnerable patient offered financial reward which incentivized him to take undue risk.
•Drug research on residents of a children's home (intellectual disability or juvenile offenders)	•Liver biopsies performed on diabetic patients who were deprived of insulin for 2 days prior to the procedure
Effect: liver damage to some participants	Effect: participants exposed to unnecessary suffering (insulin withheld) and unnecessary risk (transabdominal biopsy)
Alleged research misconduct: participants not able to provide informed consent due to incapacity or being underage.	Alleged research misconduct: participants not fully informed.
•Live cancer injected into 22 participants. Participants were not informed about the nature of the cells.	•Live cancer injected into 22 participants. Participants were not informed about the nature of cells.
Effect: not stated	Effect: not stated
Alleged research misconduct: participants not advised of the pertinent information	Alleged research misconduct: participants not advised of the pertinent information