TABLE 1.

Summary of possible effects of estrogen on RAGE and RAGE ligands

Effects on RAGE ligands	Possible effects on inflammation	Reference
Estrogen inhibits RAGE expression and oxidative stress and for this reason, estrogen therapy did not have effect in diabetic woman	Estrogen has a protective effect on inflammation	115
Estrogen inhibits the synthesis of AGE, the substrate of RAGE in vaginal epithelial tissues of postmenopausal women	These findings indicate a potential anti‐inflammatory and protective role for estrogen	138
Direct evidence of the regulation of RAGE by ERs (in addition to AGE and TNF‐α) has been demonstrated in endothelial cells	Estrogen has a protector effect on inflammation	116
The inhibition of intracellular AGE accumulation with pyridoxamine may protect glomeruli against age‐related oxidant stress by preventing an increase of TGFβ production and by regulation of the estrogen receptor	Inhibition of RAGE has a protector effect on inflammation	117
Lifestyle changes can affect AGE production which would benefit the patient, as breast cancer survivors who practiced physical activity had reduced circulating AGE levels	Reduced AGE production is beneficial in estrogen‐positive breast cancer	118
Several aspects of estrogen therapy in vascular inflammation related to increased tyrosine nitration of proteins and the production of ROS and NO, including RAGE pro‐inflammatory actions	Estrogen has a pro‐inflammatory action by increasing RAGE	121
Postmenopausal women treated with conjugated estrogens combined with progestin had elevated levels of NO in serum	High NO levels may produce benefits in cardiovascular system	122
Female mice that overexpress S100A4/Mts1 (ligand for RAGE) presented greater expression of this protein in pulmonary arterial compared to male, which correlated to elevated pulmonary vascular remodeling and risk to develop pulmonary arterial hypertension in female mice, despite the similar levels of RAGE in both sexes	Treatment with ligands for RAGE is deleterious particularly in female animals	139

RAGE: receptor for advanced glycation end‐products; AGE: advanced glycation end‐products.

Abbreviations: ER, estrogen receptors; NO, nitric oxide.