Fig. 2.

A model for mechanisms of Vitamin D vascular protection. Vitamin D shields vessels against diabetes via several intertwined pathways: it enhances the activities of NO, VEGF, SDF-1, and antioxidant systems, while downregulating AGEs, TGF-β, RAAS, C3, ER stress, and apoptosis. Altogether, Vitamin D leads to a complex anti-inflammatory, anti-adhesive, anti-apoptotic, vasculo-protective phenotype. Abbreviations: VD, vitamin D; NO, nitric oxide; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; AGEs, advanced glycation end-products; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; RAAS, renin-angiotensin aldosterone system; SDF-1, stromal cell-derived factor 1; C3, C3 complement factor; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; EC, endothelial cells; MAC, myeloid angiogenic cells