Figure 2.

Imbalanced bone formation and resorption, and disturbed homeostasis of essential trace elements in the bone under exposure to heavy metals. A) Under exposure to heavy metals, bone formation is suppressed by inhibiting the activity of osteoblasts and the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into osteoblasts. Cytoskeleton damage and cell death of osteoblasts through the induction of apoptosis or necrosis are also involved in the suppression of bone formation. Additionally, bone resorption is enhanced by increasing the activity of osteoblasts and promoting the differentiation of monocytes/macrophages into osteoclasts. B) Degradation of the collagen matrix, inhibition of mineralization and increase of calcium (Ca) resorption are induced by heavy metals, leading to the excretion of Ca and phosphorus (P). Heavy metal‐induced tubular dysfunction inhibits the resorption and recycling of Ca and P in the kidney. These outcomes ultimately induce the loss of Ca and P.