Table 1.
Characteristics of individuals sentenced for a felony conviction in Michigan and the unadjusted and multivariable association between characteristics and overdose mortality.
| No. (%) | Unadjusted HR (95% CI) | Adjusteda HR (95% CI) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | |||
| Male | 116,314 (82.9) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Female | 23,952 (17.1) | 1.37 (1.19–1.58) | 1.02 (0.88–1.19) |
| Race | |||
| White | 81,483 (58.1) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Non-White | 58,783 (41.9) | 0.26 (0.23–0.31) | 0.28 (0.22–0.36) |
| Pre-Sentence Employment | - | 0.76 (0.64–0.91) | 0.57 (0.45–0.73) |
| Mental health treatment history | 26,830 (19.1) | 2.30 (2.03–2.60) | 1.65 (1.37–1.98) |
| Alcohol use | |||
| Never | 45,670 (32.6) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Occasional | 46,162 (32.9) | 1.07 (0.92–1.25) | 0.79 (0.67–0.94) |
| Weekly | 31,428 (22.4) | 1.32 (1.12–1.55) | 0.87 (0.75–1.00) |
| Daily | 17,006 (12.1) | 1.80 (1.51–2.15) | 1.02 (0.84–1.24) |
| Marijuana use | |||
| Never | 53,468 (38.1) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Occasional | 34,525 (24.6) | 1.16 (1.00–1.35) | 0.95 (0.84–1.07) |
| Weekly | 23,813 (17.0) | 1.25 (1.05–1.46) | 1.07 (0.87–1.31) |
| Daily | 28,460 (20.3) | 1.06 (0.90–1.25) | 0.81 (0.69–0.96) |
| Opioid use | |||
| Never | 124,125 (88.5) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Occasional | 3,673 (2.6) | 3.82 (3.01–4.84) | 2.65 (2.15–3.26) |
| Weekly | 2,741 (2.0) | 4.38 (3.39–5.66) | 2.99 (2.24–4.00) |
| Daily | 9,727 (6.9) | 5.90 (5.16–6.76) | 3.54 (3.24–3.87) |
| Stimulant use | |||
| Never | 94,700 (67.5) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Occasional | 18,907 (13.5) | 2.27 (1.95–2.63) | 1.22 (1.03–1.43) |
| Weekly | 13,099 (9.3) | 2.19 (1.84–2.60) | 1.10 (0.92–1.32) |
| Daily | 13,560 (9.7) | 2.03 (1.71–2.42) | 0.94 (0.76–1.16) |
| Other drug use | |||
| Never | 105,363 (75.1) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Occasional | 30,552 (21.8) | 0.83 (0.71–0.97) | 0.96 (0.80–1.14) |
| Weekly | 2,186 (1.6) | 1.75 (1.22–2.51) | 0.86 (0.68–1.09) |
| Daily | 2,165 (1.5) | 2.76 (2.06–3.69) | 1.42 (1.03–1.96) |
| Number of prior arrests | |||
| 0–4 | 66,406 (47.3) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| 5–9 | 40,797 (29.1) | 1.62 (1.40–1.88) | 1.43 (1.23–1.66) |
| 10+ | 33,063 (23.6) | 2.44 (2.12–2.81) | 1.84 (1.48–2.28) |
| Drug possession conviction | |||
| No | 120,902 (86.2) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Yes | 19,364 (13.8) | 1.85 (1.61–2.13) | 1.11 (0.93–1.31) |
| Drug delivery conviction | |||
| No | 118,842 (84.7) | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Yes | 21,424 (15.3) | 0.86 (0.72–1.02) | 0.92 (0.77–1.09) |
| Setting | |||
| In the community not on parole or probation | - | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| In prison | - | 0.04 (0.02–0.08) | 0.03 (0.01–0.07) |
| On parole | - | 1.65 (1.38–1.98) | 1.13 (0.87–1.47) |
| On probation | - | 0.84 (0.72–0.98) | 0.71 (0.60–0.85) |
| Cumulative prison months | |||
| 0 | - | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| 1–48 | - | 0.90 (0.78–1.04) | 0.94 (0.75–1.18) |
| 49+ | - | 0.31 (0.20–0.49) | 0.97 (0.57–1.65) |
| Prison admissions, number | - | 0.91 (0.81–1.01) | 1.27 (1.00–1.61) |
| Cumulative probation months | - | 1.00 (1.00b–1.00) | 1.01 (1.00–1.01) |
| Probation admissions, number | - | 1.20 (1.06–1.37) | 1.45 (1.29–1.63) |
| Cumulative parole months | - | 1.02 (1.01–1.02) | 1.01 (1.00b-1.02) |
| Parole admissions, number | - | 1.46 (1.32–1.61) | 0.93 (0.64–1.36) |
HR=hazard ratio
a
Model adjusted for age (time-varying), marital status, education, body mass index, months in prison prior to sentence, offense severity score, offense severity score squared, first time felony offense, and initial sentence type
b
<1.00 before rounding