TABLE 1—
Multivariable Ordinal Logistic Regression Model Estimating PHQ-4 Levels (Normal, Mild, Moderate, Severe), Stratified by High- and Low-Count US States: March 10–16, 2020
| High COVID-19 Count States, OR (95% CI) | Low COVID-19 Count States, OR (95% CI) | |
| Survey date | 1.11 (1.01, 1.21) | 1.02 (0.95, 1.10) |
| Perceived likelihood infection (Ref: 0%) | ||
| 1%–50% | 1.40 (0.85, 2.31) | 1.89 (1.23, 2.91) |
| > 50% | 1.57 (0.74, 3.30) | 3.29 (1.97, 5.51) |
| Perceived likelihood death if infected (Ref: 0%) | ||
| 1%–50% | 0.83 (0.53, 1.29) | 1.49 (1.02, 2.17) |
| > 50% | 1.65 (0.81, 3.38) | 1.83 (1.06, 3.16) |
| Age, y | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99) | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99) |
| Female gender (Ref: male) | 1.42 (0.98, 2.06) | 1.43 (1.10, 1.86) |
| Race/ethnicity (Ref: non-Hispanic White) | ||
| American Indian/Alaska Native | 0.30 (0.01, 7.77) | 0.08 (0.01, 0.54) |
| Asian | 0.99 (0.56, 1.73) | 0.37 (0.15, 0.94) |
| Black/African American | 0.73 (0.28, 1.88) | 0.55 (0.34, 0.88) |
| Hawaiian/Pacific Islander | 0.17 (0.01, 2.27) | 0.30 (0.02, 4.66) |
| Hispanic/Latino | 1.02 (0.67, 1.56) | 0.79 (0.46, 1.36) |
| Multiracial | 1.01 (0.43, 2.38) | 0.80 (0.35, 1.84) |
| Marital status (Ref: married) | ||
| Never married | 1.04 (0.71, 1.52) | 1.30 (0.94, 1.81) |
| Separated or divorced | 1.33 (0.77, 2.29) | 1.56 (1.10, 2.22) |
| Widowed | 0.34 (0.15, 0.77) | 1.63 (0.99, 2.70) |
| Education (Ref: ≤ high school) | ||
| Some college or 2-y degree | 1.20 (0.71, 2.03) | 0.91 (0.67, 1.24) |
| Bachelor’s degree | 1.60 (0.87, 2.93) | 0.97 (0.66, 1.41) |
| Graduate degree | 2.00 (1.00, 4.01) | 1.02 (0.68, 1.54) |
| Household income, $ (Ref: < 20 000) | ||
| 20 000–39 999 | 0.60 (0.33, 1.07) | 1.17 (0.76, 1.81) |
| 40 000–59 999 | 0.76 (0.45, 1.28) | 0.86 (0.55, 1.34) |
| 60 000–99 999 | 0.58 (0.33, 1.02) | 0.69 (0.43, 1.10) |
| ≥ 100 000 | 0.69 (0.40, 1.21) | 0.82 (0.50, 1.37) |
| Currently have job: no (Ref: yes) | 1.23 (0.84, 1.82) | 1.29 (0.96, 1.74) |
| No. days cannabis past wk | 1.12 (1.02, 1.22) | 1.05 (0.98, 1.13) |
| No. days alcohol past wk | 1.01 (0.92, 1.12) | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13) |
| Historical depressive symptoms (CES-D 8) | 1.40 (1.30, 1.50) | 1.47 (1.38, 1.56) |
| Took steps to avoid infecting others (Ref: no) | ||
| Unsure | 1.23 (0.43, 3.55) | 1.76 (0.82, 3.79) |
| Yes | 1.30 (0.91, 1.87) | 1.26 (0.96, 1.67) |
Note. CES-D 8 = 8-item version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies–Depression Scale; CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio; PHQ-4 = 4-item version of the Patient Health Questionnaire. High-count states are those with 50 or more confirmed COVID-19 cases as of March 10, 2020 (WA, NY, CA, MA). Low-count states are all remaining US states, with fewer than 50 cases. Participants were n = 5065 in total; n = 1940 in high-count states; n = 3125 in low-count states.