Table 2.
Applications of 3D anatomical models to treating cardiovascular diseases
| Condition | Material | Printing method | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Congenital heart disease | |||
| Atrial septal defect [33, 53, 54] | PLA, resin, polyurethane filament | FDM SLA | Preoperative evaluation; transcatheter device closure simulation |
| Ventricular septal defect [55–58] | PLA, gypsum, cyanoacrylate | FDM | Congenital heart disease education for medical students; transcatheter device closure simulation |
| Complex congenital heart disease: e.g., endocardial cushion defect [54, 59], double-outlet right ventricle [56, 60–62] | PLA, resin, VeroMagenta | FDM SLA | Improve understanding of congenital heart disease; surgical management |
| Heart valve disease | |||
| Mitral valve disease [63–65] | PLA, ABS | FDM | Surgical management |
| Tricuspid valve disease [66] | ABS | FDM | Clinical decision-making; surgical planning; education |
| Aortic valve disease [67, 68] | Resin, PLA | FDM SLA | Surgical planning and training |
| Others | |||
| Arterial aneurysm [69] | Resin | SLA | Preoperative planning; postoperative evaluation |