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. 2020 Oct 8;15(10):e0239316. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239316

Table 1. Effect of 109 plant extracts from 21 plant species on growth inhibition in P. gingivalis (ATCC® 33277).

Family Species Voucher Specimen Accession Number* Collection site Ethnobotanical use Part Extract Solventa MIC (μg/mL)b IC50 (μg/mL)c
Altiginaceae Liquidambar styraciflua L. GEO20428, GEO20429 Atlanta, GA, USA Used as chewing sticks and chewing gums by Native American people (Cherokee) [37, 43] woody part MeOH ND ND
GEO20428, GEO20429 Atlanta, GA, USA leaf MeOH (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO20428, GEO20429 Atlanta, GA, USA fruit, seed MeOH ND ND
GEO22852, GEO22853 Ichauway, GA, USA root 80% EtOH(aq) (128–256)* 64
GEO22852, GEO22853 Ichauway, GA, USA leaf 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
Anacardiaceae Pistacia lentiscus L. GEO22045 Levanzo, Italy Resin used for toothache, tooth disease,or gum inflammation in the Middle East and Kampo medicine [42, 52]. leaf 95% EtOH(aq) (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO22045 Levanzo, Italy leaf dH2O 64 64
GEO22045 Levanzo, Italy woody part 95% EtOH(aq) 32 16
GEO22045 Levanzo, Italy woody part dH2O ND ND
GEO22045 Levanzo, Italy leaf 95% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22045 Levanzo, Italy fruit 95% EtOH(aq) 8 2
Asteraceae Achillea millefolium L. GEO20072 Ginestra, Italy Leaf and stem used by Native American people (Crow) as tea held in mouth for sore gums [38, 49] inflorescence EtOH ND ND
GEO20072 Ginestra, Italy leaf, stem EtOH ND ND
GEO20072 Ginestra, Italy flower, leaf, stem EtOH ND ND
GEO20072 Ginestra, Italy flower, leaf, stem MeOH ND ND
GEO20072 Ginestra, Italy inflorescence MeOH ND ND
GEO20072 Ginestra, Italy leaf, stem MeOH ND ND
GEO20232 Monte Vulture, Italy leaf, stem MeOH ND ND
Ebenaceae Diospyros virginiana L. GEO22867 Ichauway, GA, USA Boiled bark decoction for sore mouth of babies in Eastern North America [37] stem 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22867 Ichauway, GA, USA leaf 80% EtOH(aq) (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO22867 Ichauway, GA, USA leaf 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22867 Ichauway, GA, USA immature fruit 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22867 Ichauway, GA, USA woody stem 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. TTALBR541 Maracas Valley, Trinidad Twig used as a chewing stick in West Africa [37] leaf 95% EtOH(aq) ND ND
Vicia faba L. CQ-103 Ginestra, Italy Ground dried beans used for sore mouth in North America [37] flower, leaf, root, stem EtOH 32 32
CQ-103 Ginestra, Italy aerial parts MeOH 32 32
Fagaceae Quercus alba L. GEO20338 Atlanta, GA, USA Bark used as a decoction for sore mouth in North America [37] bark MeOH ND ND
GEO20338 Atlanta, GA, USA gall MeOH ND ND
GEO20338 Atlanta, GA, USA leaf MeOH ND ND
GEO20338 Atlanta, GA, USA bark dH2O ND ND
GEO20338 Atlanta, GA, USA gall dH2O ND ND
GEO20338 Atlanta, GA, USA woody part MeOH ND ND
GEO20338 Atlanta, GA, USA woody part dH2O ND ND
Juglandaceae Carya alba (L.) Nutt. ex Elliott GEO20433 Atlanta, GA, USA Inner bark chewed and blew into mouth for sore mouth by Native American people (Cherokee) [39] woody part MeOH 32 32
GEO20433 Atlanta, GA, USA leaf MeOH ND ND
GEO20433 Atlanta, GA, USA fruit MeOH 32 16
GEO20433 Atlanta, GA, USA leaf 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO20433 Atlanta, GA, USA bark 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO20433 Atlanta, GA, USA woody stem 80% EtOH(aq) (128–256)* (128–256)*
Juglans regia L. GEO23774 Ginestra, Italy Stem and bark used for teeth cleaning as chewing sticks in Pakistan and India [37, 43] woody stem EtOH 64 32
GEO23774 Ginestra, Italy woody stem MeOH 64 32
CQ-181 Ginestra, Italy immature fruit EtOH 64 32
CQ-181 Ginestra, Italy leaf EtOH ND ND
CQ-181 Ginestra, Italy woody part EtOH 32 16
CQ-181 Ginestra, Italy woody part MeOH ND ND
CQ-181 Ginestra, Italy immature fruit MeOH 32 16
CQ-181 Ginestra, Italy leaf MeOH ND ND
Lauraceae Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees GEO22810, GEO22811 Ichauway, GA, USA Used as a chewing stick for teeth cleansing in North America (Appalachia and Ozarks region) [37, 43] leaf 80% EtOH(aq) (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO22810, GEO22811 Ichauway, GA, USA root 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22810, GEO22811 Ichauway, GA, USA stem 80% EtOH(aq) 64 64
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. TTALBR531 Sangre Grande, Trinidad Twig used as cleaning stick in India [43, 45, 53]. Powdered inner bark held in mouth for toothache in India [44] leaf, woody stem 95% EtOH(aq) 64 64
Moraceae Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson ex F.A.Zorn) Fosberg TTALBR542 Maracas Valley, Trinidad Latex used for mouth sores by Hawaiian [37] leaf 95% EtOH(aq) ND ND
Myricaceae Morella cerifera (L.) Small GEO20950, GEO20951 Arcadia,FL, USA Rook bark used for oral hygiene in the Southern U.S. [37]. Bark used as a powder and decoction to prevent dental decay in Florida [54] leaf, flower MeOH 128 64
GEO21165, GEO21169 Arcadia,FL, USA woody part MeOH (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO21165, GEO21169 Arcadia,FL, USA woody stem dH2O ND ND
GEO20950, GEO20951 Arcadia,FL, USA branch, stem MeOH ND ND
GEO20950, GEO20951 Arcadia,FL, USA bark MeOH ND ND
GEO20950, GEO20951 Arcadia,FL, USA bark dH2O ND ND
GEO20950, GEO20951 Arcadia,FL, USA branch, stem dH2O ND ND
Oleaceae Olea europaea L. GEO20084 Ginestra, Italy Twig used as chewing stick in the Middle East [37] leaf EtOH (128–256)* 64
GEO20084 Ginestra, Italy woody part MeOH (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO20084 Ginestra, Italy leaf MeOH 64 32
Polygonaceae Rumex crispus L. GEO20070 Ginestra, Italy Powdered root used as a toothpaste in North America [37] aerial part, fruit, leaf, stem EtOH (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO20070 Ginestra, Italy ND MeOH ND ND
Polypodiaceae Pleopeltis polypodioides (L.) E.G. Andrews & Windham GEO21158, GEO21159 Arcadia, FL, USA Frond used as mouthwash by Native American people (Houma) [37] whole plant MeOH ND ND
GEO21158, GEO21159 Arcadia, FL, USA whole plant dH2O ND ND
Rutaceae Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck GEO21152 Nocatee, FL, USA Peeled twig used as chewing sticks in West Africa [37] fruit rind MeOH ND ND
GEO21152 Nocatee, FL, USA woody part MeOH 32 16
GEO21152 Nocatee, FL, USA woody part MeoH ND ND
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. GEO22201 Baral, Islamic Republic of Pakistan Wood and bark used as chewing sticks in india [37] fruit, seed 95% EtOH(aq) 16 16
Salicaceae Salix nigra Marshall GEO21184, GEO21185 Myakka City, FL, USA Used by North American people (Iriquois) for periodontitis like symptoms [37] leaf MeOH ND ND
GEO21184, GEO21185 Myakka City, FL, USA leaf dH2O ND ND
GEO21066, GEO21024 Myakka City, FL, USA flower, fruit, leaf MeOH ND ND
GEO21066, GEO21024 Myakka City, FL, USA branch MeOH ND ND
GEO21210, GEO21212 Arcadia, FL, USA woody stem MeOH (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO21210, GEO21212 Arcadia, FL, USA woody stem dH2O ND ND
GEO21066, GEO21024 Myakka City, FL, USA branch dH2O ND ND
GEO21066, GEO21024 Myakka City, FL, USA flower, fruit, leaf dH2O ND ND
GEO21185, GEO21184 Myakka City, FL, USA woody stem MeOH ND ND
GEO21210, GEO21212 Arcadia, FL, USA leaf MeOH ND ND
GEO21210, GEO21212 Arcadia, FL, USA bark MeOH ND ND
GEO21185, GEO21184 Myakka City, FL, USA bark MeOH ND ND
GEO21066, GEO21024 Myakka City, FL, USA bark MeOH ND ND
GEO22870, GEO22871 Ichauway, GA, USA leaf 80% EtOH(aq) (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO22870, GEO22871 Ichauway, GA, USA bark 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22870, GEO22871 Ichauway, GA, USA root 80% EtOH(aq) (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO21066, GEO21024 Myakka City, FL, USA bark dH2O ND ND
GEO21185, GEO21184 Myakka City, FL, USA woody stem dH2O (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO21210, GEO21212 Arcadia, FL, USA bark dH2O (128–256)* (128–256)*
Sapotaceae Sideroxylon celastrinum (Kunth) T.D. Penn. GEO21090, GEO21084 Arcadia, FL, USA Outer bark mucilage used a cleaning gum by North American people (Kiowa) [37] stem MeOH ND ND
GEO21090, GEO21084 Arcadia, FL, USA leaf, stem MeOH ND ND
GEO21090, GEO21084 Arcadia, FL, USA leaf, stem dH2O ND ND
GEO21090, GEO21084 Arcadia, FL, USA stem dH2O ND ND
Sideroxylon lanuginosum Michx. GEO22922, GEO22923 Ichauway, GA, USA Outer bark mucilage used a cleaning gum by North American people (Kiowa) [37] leaf 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22982, GEO22983 Ichauway, GA, USA leaf 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22982, GEO22983 Ichauway, GA, USA woody stem 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22982, GEO22983 Ichauway, GA, USA bark 80% EtOH(aq) (128–256)* (128–256)*
Vitaceae Vitis rotundifolia Michx. GEO22924, GEO22925 Ichauway, GA, USA Ashes of burnt branches used as a toothpaste in England [37] leaf, stem MeOH ND ND
GEO22924, GEO22925 Ichauway, GA, USA leaf 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22924, GEO22925 Ichauway, GA, USA root 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22924, GEO22925 Ichauway, GA, USA woody stem 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
GEO22924, GEO22925 Ichauway, GA, USA immature fruit 80% EtOH(aq) ND ND
Vitis vinifera L. GEO20102 Ginestra, Italy Ashes of burnt branches used as a toothpaste in England [37] stem EtOH ND ND
GEO20102 Ginestra, Italy fruit EtOH (128–256)* (128–256)*
GEO20102 Ginestra, Italy leaf EtOH 64 64
GEO20102 Ginestra, Italy fruit MeOH ND ND
GEO20102 Ginestra, Italy leaf MeOH 32 64
GEO20102 Ginestra, Italy stem MeOH 32 32

adH2O: Distilled water. EtOH: Ethanol. EtOH(aq): aqueous ethanol. MeOH: methanol.

bOnly the MIC and IC50 for plant extracts with a growth inhibition > 90% at 64 μg/mL are shown. ND: Not Determined. (128–256)*: MIC was not determined but the extract has a growth inhibition >90% at 256 μg/mL but not at 64 μg/mL, meaning that the MIC could be either 128 or 256 μg/mL.

c(128–256)*: In cases where the IC50 was not detected for the dose-response studies beginning at 64 μg/mL, but the extract has a growth inhibition >90% at 256 μg/mL, the IC50 could be either 128 or 256 μg/mL. As a point of comparison, the MIC for tetracycline was 0.125 μg/mL and IC50 was 0.063 μg/mL.

*All accessions with GEO have been digitized and can be viewed online with the SERNEC portal (http://sernecportal.org/portal/). To access, click on “Search Collections”, only include a checkbox for the Emory University Herbarium and click on search. Next, enter only the numeric portion of the GEO accession ID (e.g., for GEO20102, enter “20102” under the Specimen Criteria Catalog Number box). Then, click “List Display” to view the record.