Table 3.
Potential Southern African medicinal plants (traditionally used for coughs, fevers, colds and influenza) that showed activity against coronaviruses or against similar viruses [the list have been compiled from Medicinal Plant of South Africa (Van Wyk et al., 2009)].
| Name | Vernacular name | Reported activity against human coronaviruses |
|---|---|---|
| Adansonia digitata L. | Kremetart, Baobab, Shimuwu, Movana, Muvhuyu | NT# |
| Agathosma betulina (P.J.Bergius) Pillans | Boegoe, Buchu, Ibuchu | NT |
| Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. & Zeyh. | Kalmoes, Lesoko, Iqwili, Ikhathazo | NT |
| Aloe excelsa A.Berger | Noble aloe, Zimbabwe aloe | NT |
| Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. | Als, Wildeals, African wormwood, Lengana, Umhlonyane | Artemisia annua, closely related species to A. afra: EC50 + = 34.5 ± 2.6 μg/mL (SARS-CoV BJ-001); CC50 ++ = 1053 ± 92.8 μg/mL (Vero cells); SI## = 27 (Li et al., 2005) |
| Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) R.Dahlgren | Rooibostee, Rooibos tea | Quercetin: IC50 +++ = 73 μM (Recombinant 3CLpro) (Nguyen et al., 2012) |
| Luteolin: EC50 = 10.6 μM (wild-type SARS-CoV); CC50 = 0.16 mM (Vero cells); SI = 14.62 (Yi et al., 2004) | ||
| Ballota africana (L.) Benth. | Kattekruid | NT |
| Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze | White tea, green tea, mchai (Kiswahili) | Epigallocatechin gallate: IC50 = 73 μM (Recombinant 3CLpro) (Nguyen et al., 2012) |
| Cannabis sativa L. | Dagga, Marijuana, Matokwane, Umya, Nsangu | NT |
| Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. | Boesmanstee, Khat, Bushman’s tea | NT |
| Chondropetalum mucronatum (Nees) Pillans | Mountain Restio | Myricetin: IC50 = 2.71 ± 0.19 μM (nsP13, SARS helicase protein); Cytotoxicity: No toxicity at 2 μM against MCF10A cells (Yu et al., 2012) |
| Quercetin: IC50 = 73 μM (Recombinant 3CLpro) (Nguyen et al., 2012) | ||
| Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J.Presl | Kamferboom, Camphor tree, Uroselina | NT |
| Croton gratissimus Burch. | Bergboegoe, Lavender croton, Maquassie, Umahlabekufeni | NT |
| Cyclopia latifolia DC. | Heuningbos, Honeybush | Epigallocatechin gallate: IC50 = 73 μM (Recombinant 3CLpro) (Nguyen et al., 2012) |
| Luteolin: EC50 = 10.6 μM (wild-type SARS-CoV); CC50 = 0.16 mM (Vero cells); SI = 14.62 (Yi et al., 2004) | ||
| Datura stramonium L. | Stinkblaar, Thornapple, Lethsowe, Zaba-zaba, Iloyi, Ijoyi | NT |
| Dicoma capensis Less. | Wilde karmedik, Koorsbossie | NT |
| Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. | Sandolien, Sand olive, Mutepipuma, Mutata-vhana | β-sitosterol: EC50 = 1210 μM (HCoV-NL63) (Lin et al., 2005) |
| Drimia elata Jacq. | Brandui, Indongana-zibomvana | NT |
| Glycyrrhiza glabra L. | Soethoutwortel, Liqourice root, Mlomo-mnandi | Glycyrrhizin: EC50 = 300 mg/L (SARS-CoV); CC50 >20 000 mg/L (Vero cells); SI >67 (Cinatl et al., 2003) |
| Halleria lucida L. | Tree fuschia, white olive | NT |
| Helichrysum spp. | Kooigoed, Everlastings, Isicwe, Imphepho | Helichrysetin: IC50 = 67.04 μM (MERS‐CoV 3C like-protease) (Jo et al., 2019) |
| Heteropyxis natalensis Harv. | Laventelboom, Lavender tree, Inkunzi | NT |
| Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br. | Wilde dagga, Wild dagga, Umhlahlampetu, Lebake, Umunyane | NT |
| Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng | Koorsbossie, Fever tea, Mumara, Musukudu, Inzinziniba, Umsuzwane | NT |
| Mentha longifolia (L.) L. | Kruisement, Wild mint, Koena-ya-thaba, Inixina, Ufuthanen lomhlange | NT |
| Myrothamnus flabellifolia Welw. | Bergboegoe, Resurrection plant, Uvukwabafile | NT |
| Myrsine melanophloeos (L) R. Br. | Kaapse boekenhout, Cape beech, Isiqwane-sehlati, Umaphipha | NT |
| Osmitopsis asteriscoides Less. | Bels, Belskruie | NT |
| Pelargonium sidoides DC. | Rabas, Khoaara e nyenyane, Ikhubalo | EPs® 7630 (commercial product prepared from P. sidoides): EC50 = 44.50 ± 15.84 μg/mL (HCoV 229E); CC50 >100 μg/mL (Caco-2 cells); SI > 2.3 (Michaelis et al., 2011) |
| Pellaea calomelanos (Sw.) Link | Hard fern, Lehorometso, Inkomankomo | NT |
| Protea repens L. | Suikerbos, Sugarbush | NT |
| Prunus africana (Hook.f) Kalkman | Rooistinkhout, Red stinkwood, Umkakase, Inyazongoma-elimnyana | β-sitosterol: EC50 = 1210 μM (HCoV-NL63) (Lin et al., 2005) |
| Rauvolfia caffra Sond. | Kinaboom, Quinine tree, Umhlambamase, Umhlambamanzi | Reserpine: EC50 = 3.4 μM (SARS-CoV); CC50 = 2.5 μM (Vero-cells); SI: 7.3 (Wu et al., 2004) |
| Salix mucronata (Thunb.) | Wilde wilger, Wild wilow | NT |
| Scadoxus puniceus (L.) Friis & Nordal | Rooikwas, Red paintbrush, Umphompo | NT |
| Searsia undulata (Jacq.) T. S. Yi, A.J.Mill. & J. Wen | Koeniebos, Kuni-bush, T’kuni | NT |
| Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen. | Krinkhout, Violet tree, Mpesu | NT |
| Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B.L.Burtt. | African ginger, Isiphephetho, Indungulo | NT |
| Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. | Wildekanferbos, Wild camphor bush, Sefehla, Umgebe, Mofahlana, Mohata, Mathola | NT |
| Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd. | Watersalie, Ginger bush, Iboza | NT |
| Thesium hystrix A.W. Hill | Kleinswartstorm | NT |
| Tulbaghia violacea Harv. | Wilde knoffel, Wild garlic, Isihaqa | NT |
| Viscum capense L. f. | Lidjiestee, Cape mistletoe | NT |
| Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal | Geneesblaarbossie, Winter cherry, Bofepha, Ubuvuma, Ubuvimbha | NT |
| Xerophyta retinervis Baker | Bobbejaanstert, Monkey’s tail, Isiphemba, Isiqumama | NT |
| Zanthoxylum capense (Thunb.) Harv. | Kleinperdepram, Small knobwood, Monokwane, Umlungumabele, Umnungamabele | NT |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | Gemmer, Ginger | NT |
| Ziziphus mucronata Willd. | Blinkblaar-wag-’n-bietjie, Buffalo thorn, Mokgalo, Umphafa, Umlahlankosi |
Z. jujuba cyclopeptide alkaloids Jubanine H: EC50 = 4.49 ± 0.67 μM (PEDV, CoV); CC50 = 211.26 ± 29.64 μM (Vero cells); SI = 47.11 ± 0.49 Nummularine B: EC50 = 6.17 ± 0.50 μM (PEDV, CoV); CC50 = 165.30 ± 16.49 μM (Vero cells); SI = 26.75 ± 0.54 (Kang et al., 2015) |
The plants have been selected from Medicinal Plants of South Africa (Van Wyk et al., 2009) and other resources, #Not tested (selected based on traditional usage), +50% effective concentration, ++50% cytotoxic concentration; ##Selective index (CC50/EC50), +++50% inhibitory concentration.