Table 2.

Anti-inflammatory and smooth muscle relaxant effects of P. oleracea.

Extract	Doses	Model of study	Effects	Reference
Hydroethanolic	160 μg/ml	Lymphocyte	Increased IL-4, IL-10, IFN-γ, IFN-γ/il-4, and IL-10/il-4 ratios	[68]
Aqueous extract	100 μg/ml	Vascular endothelial cells	Decreased mRNA expressions of MCP-1 and IL-8	[69]
Ethanol	200 μg/ml	RAW 264.7 cells	Decreased TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6	[70]
POL-P3b	(250 μg/ml)	DCs	Increased IL-12 and IL-10	[71]
Polysaccharide	600 μg/ml, p.o.	Rat	Increased T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes	[72]
Polysaccharide	Unknown	Mice	Showed preventive effect on reduction of the spleen weight and the number of murine spleen T cells	[73]
Boiled extract	0.25 mg/kg	Asthmatic patients	Increased measured PFTs	[76]
Aqueous extracts	0.06, 0.12 and 0.25 mg/ml	Tracheal chains of guinea pig	Showed stimulatory effect on β-adrenoceptor	[77]
Hydroethanolic	0.25, 0.50 and 1.00 mg/ml	Guinea pigs tracheal smooth muscles	Showed blocking effects of muscarinic receptor	[78]
Ethanolic extract	(250 μg/ml)	Mice	Reduced intestinal motility	[83]
Aqueous extract	(300 mg/kg/day, po)	Mice aortic tissue	Suppressed overexpression of (VCAM) -1, (ICAM) - 1, E-selectin and (MMP) -2	[84]
Aqueous extract	600 μg/ml p.o.	Isolated guinea pig ileum strip	Reduced peristaltic index	[85]
Aqueous extract	7 × 10−4 g/ml	Guinea pig fundus, rabbit jejunum and rabbit aorta	Showed relaxant effect on smooth muscle and reduced blood pressure	[86]

IL: interleukin, IFN-γ: interferon-gamma, POL-P3b: polysaccharide fraction, MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α, NO: nitrogen oxide, IgE: immunoglobulin E, (VCAM) 1: vascular cell adhesion molecule, (ICAM) 1: intracellular cell adhesion molecular, and (MMP) 2: matrix metalloproteinase.