Table 2.

A series of international initiatives to address climate change

COP16 Cancun Adaptation Framework, 2010 The United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) first recognizes the growing importance of human mobility while establishing the Cancun Adaptation Framework at the COP16 in Cancun, Mexico. The conference also established a process for least developed countries (LDCs) and other interested developing countries to formulate and implement national adaptation plans (NAPs) to identify and address their medium and long-term adaptation needs. It proposed the idea of a climate risk insurance facility, and sought “ways to address rehabilitation from the impacts of such climate change-related events as sea-level rise [100].”

The Nansen Initiative, 2012 [••101] In response to COP16, the Nansen Initiative, launched by Switzerland and Norway, was a state-led consultative process, which recognized that while most movement will take place within countries, there remains a significant protection gap (both legal and operational) for those who cross an international border. Based on these consultations, the Initiative published a consensus “Agenda for the protection of cross-border displaced persons in the context of disasters and climate change,” which was endorsed by 109 states in 2015 [102]. The Protection Agenda supports the integration of effective practices by states and (sub-) regional actors into their own normative frameworks, rather than calling for a new binding international convention on cross-border disaster displacement [103].

COP19 Warsaw International Mechanism, 2013 The WIM created a legitimate policy space to discuss and address the negative consequences of climate change if society’s efforts to mitigate and adapt are not sufficient. It sought to implement approaches to address climate change associated loss and damage and recognized migration as an adaptation strategy.

COP21 Paris Agreement, 2015 The Paris Agreement seeks to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels. To strengthen the ability of countries to address the impacts of climate change, it seeks to facilitate appropriate financial flows, a new technology framework, and an enhanced capacity-building framework to align action by developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, with their own national objectives. To date, 189 of the 197 Parties to the Convention have ratified it. Having notified intent, the USA can officially withdraw from the Agreement on or after November 4, 2020. Many of the Nationally Determined Contributions, as required by the Paris Agreement, from Africa, Asia Pacific, and Oceania refer to human mobility and its role as an adaptation strategy [9].

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015 [••104] The Sendai Framework adopted at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction and endorsed by the UNGA in 2015 recognizes that population movements produce risk but can also serve as an adaptation strategy [105]. The text however emphasizes disaster-related displacement and avoids explicit inclusion of mobility from conflict and violence, to gain Member State consensus.

Agenda for Humanity, 2016 [106] The third of five principles, articulated in this political communique led by the UN Secretary General, as an output of the World Humanitarian Summit (WHS) in Istanbul, is titled “leave no one behind” and addresses displacement, migration, and statelessness.

The Platform on Disaster Displacement, 2015 [107] The goal of the Platform also launched at the WHS is to follow-up on the Protection Agenda published by the Nansen Initiative. It explicitly recognizes the intersection of environment and climate change, and displacement. Its four strategic priorities include addressing knowledge gaps, promoting identified effective practices, promoting policy coherence and mainstreaming of human mobility challenges, and promoting policy and normative development in gap areas [108].

New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, 2016 [•109] The New York Declaration was adopted in the 71st UN General Assembly and addresses migration due to environmental and/or climate change, as well as the environmental impacts of migration, large population movements, and the environmental sustainability aspects of migration. It notes that environmental factors drive both internal and international migration

The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, 2018 [110] The Compact is an intergovernmental negotiated, non-binding, UN global agreement initially adopted by 160 countries that seeks to address concerns of state sovereignty and responsibility-sharing while upholding human rights and principles of non-discrimination as societies undergo demographic, economic, social, and environmental changes that may have implications for migration or result from it.

The Global Compact for Refugees, 2018 [111] The Compact seeks to invest in host communities to provide better education, healthcare access, and livelihood opportunities, moving away from contemporary dominant encampment policies [112].