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. 2020 Sep 29;11:544929. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.544929

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Copyright © 2020 Garland and McGregor.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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(A) Spectrograms illustrating the hierarchical structure of humpback whale song (from Garland et al., 2017b). A single unit (“trumpet”) and a single phrase from Theme 25a are shown in the top panel. Theme 25a units from the single phrase in the top panel are as follows: short ascending moan, grunt, grunt, grunt, grunt, grunt, grunt, short ascending moan, trumpet, squeak, trumpet, squeak, and trumpet. The repetition of phrases and the sequential singing of themes are shown in each of the subsequent panels. Spectrograms were 2048 point fast Fourier transform (FFT), Hann window, 31 Hz resolution, and 75% overlap, generated in Raven Pro 1.4. Reprinted with permission from Garland et al. 2017b (Copyright 2017, Acoustic Society of America). (B) Spectrograms illustrating the hierarchical structure of corn bunting song. The lower panel represents part of a bout of singing lasting several minutes. It shows two song types (song types differ mainly in the first part of the song; McGregor, 1986) sung in an eventual variety style: five repeats of song type 1, then four repeats of song type 2. A single song (top panel) is composed of units of grouped elements, where elements are single continuous sounds. Spectrograms produced with 20 kHz sampling rate and 160 Hz bandwidth.