Table 1.

Venom ophthalmia caused by venomous snakes.

Species	Family	Gland	Venom Components	Spitting Distance (Meter)	Ocular Lesions	Treatments	Outcome	Ref.
Naja atra	Elapidae	Duvernoy	α-Neurotoxin PLA2 LAAO CTXs	0.7–1	Conjunctivitis; corneal injury; Keratoconjunctivitis; Keratitis; Photophobia	Water irrigations; topical antibiotics, corticosteroids, and vasoconstrictors; Analgesics	Full recovery	[3,9,10]
N. naja	Elapidae	Duvernoy	α-Neurotoxin PLA2 LAAO CTXs	0.2	conjunctival inflammation and swelling of the eyelids	Water irrigations	Full recovery	[3]
N. nigricollis	Elapidae	Duvernoy	α-Neurotoxin PLA2 LAAO CTXs	0.8–2	Corneal injury; hypopyon; uveitis; conjunctival hyperemia	Water irrigations; topical antibiotics, corticosteroids atropine; Analgesics	Recovered with sequelae; Few blind	[3,11,16,17,18]
N. pallida	Elapidae	Duvernoy	α-Neurotoxin PLA2 LAAO CTXs	0.5–1	Blepharitis, blepharospasm, conjunctivitis	Water irrigations	Full recovery	[3]
N. siamensis	Elapidae	Duvernoy	α-Neurotoxin PLA2 LAAO CTXs	2	Conjunctivitis	Water irrigations; Epinephrine	Full recovery	[3]
Hemachatus haemachatus	Elapidae	Duvernoy	PLA2 LAAO CTXs	1	Red eye	Water irrigations	Full recovery	[3]
Crotalus atrox	Viperidae	Duvernoy	PLA2 LAAO SVMPs	n/a	Photophobia	Water irrigations; Topical antivenom, Analgesics	Full recovery	[12,13,14]
Rhabdophis tigrinus	Colubridae	Nuchal	bufadienolides	n/a	Conjunctivitis, keratitis, corneal clouding	Saline irrigations; topical antibiotics, corticosteroids	Full recovery	[24,25,26]
R.t. formosanus	Colubridae	Nuchal	bufadienolides	1	Keratitis, corneal stromal edema and conjunctival congestion	Water irrigation; topical corticosteroid, antihistamine and antibiotic	Full recovery	[27]

PLA₂: Phospholipases A₂; LAAO: L-amino acid oxidases; CTXs: Cardiotoxins; SVMPs: Snake venom metalloproteinases.