Table 2.
Comparison of anthropometry profiles, blood pressure, biochemical profiles, and cognitive test performance among three different intermittent fasting (IF) status groups on the basis of time (time*treatment interaction effect).
| Parameter | Fasting Status | Baseline | 36 Months | p-Value (Partial Eta Square) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean ± SD | 95% CI | Mean ± SD | 95% CI | Effect of Time | Effect of Group | Interaction Effect | ||
| Anthropometry | ||||||||
| Weight (kg) | r-IF (n = 37) | 52.84 ± 1.47 | 49.92, 55.75 | 49.19 ± 1.48 ###,a,b | 46.26, 52.12 | 0.12 (0.01) | <0.001 (0.34) * | 0.03 (0.47) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 61.47 ± 1.51 | 58.47, 64.47 | 61.11 ± 1.52 a | 58.09, 64.12 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 63.99 ± 1.72 | 60.57, 67.40 | 66.27 ± 1.73 ###,b | 62.84, 69.71 | ||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | r-IF (n = 37) | 24.17 ± 0.53 | 23.11, 25.24 | 22.64 ± 0.52 ###,a,b | 21.60, 23.68 | 0.02 (0.09) * | <0.001 (0.59) * | <0.001 (0.31) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 26.14 ± 0.50 | 25.15, 27.14 | 27.35 ± 0.48 ##,a,c | 26.39, 28.33 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 30.03 ± 0.63 | 28.78, 31.27 | 33.56 ± 0.61 ###,b,c | 32.34, 34.78 | ||||
| WC (cm) | r-IF (n = 37) | 86.63 ± 1.32 | 84.02, 89.24 | 81.53 ± 1.57 ###,b | 78.42, 84.65 | 0.02 (0.06) * | <0.001 (0.93) * | 0.03 (0.04) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 87.46 ± 1.35 | 84.78, 90.15 | 87.81 ± 1.61 c | 83.61, 90.02 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 92.85 ± 1.54 | 89.79, 95.91 | 95.80 ± 1.84 ###,b,c | 92.16, 99.45 | ||||
| HC (cm) | r-IF (n = 37) | 90.59 ± 1.09 | 88.43, 92.75 | 90.22 ± 0.97 b | 88.29, 92.15 | <0.001 (0.12) * | 0.06 (0.05) | <0.001 (0.17) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 90.87 ± 1.12 | 88.65, 93.09 | 92.47 ± 1.29 # | 89.17, 94.33 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 91.75 ± 1.29 | 89.17, 94.33 | 96.35 ± 1.16 ###,b | 94.05, 98.65 | ||||
| Blood pressure | ||||||||
| Systolic (mmHg) | r-IF (n = 37) | 139.35 ± 2.83 | 133.74, 144.96 | 132.31 ± 2.49 ###,a,b | 127.36, 137.27 | 0.74 (0.001) | 0.01 (0.09) * | <0.001 (0.21) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 142.65 ± 2.91 | 136.89, 148.43 | 145.46 ± 2.57 a | 140.36, 150.55 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 143.48 ± 2.57 | 136.91, 150.05 | 151.17 ± 2.92 ##,b | 145.37, 156.97 | ||||
| Diastolic (mmHg) | r-IF (n = 37) | 76.76 ± 1.75 | 73.29, 80.22 | 72.97 ± 1.70 ##,b | 69.59, 76.35 | 0.38 (0.01) | 0.13 (0.04) | 0.02 (0.08) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 78.06 ± 1.79 | 74.49, 81.62 | 76.98 ± 1.75 | 73.52, 80.46 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 77.93 ± 2.05 | 73.87, 81.99 | 81.24 ± 1.99 #,b | 77.29, 85.19 | ||||
| Biochemical profile | ||||||||
| FBS (mmol/L) | r-IF (n = 37) | 5.49 ± 0.72 | 5.21,5.77 | 5.12 ± 0.60 ## | 4.63, 5.62 | 0.15 (0.02) | <0.001 (0.17) * | 0.004 (0.11) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 5.97 ± 1.11 | 5.61, 6.34 | 6.12 ± 1.43 c | 5.56, 6.67 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 5.76 ± 0.94 | 5.44, 6.09 | 6.92 ± 2.40 #,c | 6.64, 7.56 | ||||
| HDL (mmol/L) | r-IF (n = 37) | 1.42 ± 0.27 | 1.33, 1.52 | 1.75 ± 0.39 ###,a | 1.65, 1.86 | 0.008 (0.07) * | <0.001 (0.27) * | <0.001 (0.24) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 1.25 ± 0.37 | 1.13, 1.38 | 1.39 ± 0.39 ###,a | 1.25, 1.54 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 1.24 ± 0.31 | 1.12, 1.35 | 1.05 ± 0.29 # | 0.92, 1.18 | ||||
| LDL (mmol/L) | r-IF (n = 37) | 3.20 ± 0.66 | 2.98, 3.43 | 2.77 ± 0.61 a,b | 2.51, 3.03 | 0.003 (0.08) * | 0.046 (0.06) * | 0.05 (0.06) |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 3.56 ± 0.74 | 3.26, 3.86 | 3.07 ± 0.84 ###,a | 2.73, 3.41 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 3.56 ± 0.89 | 3.29, 3.84 | 3.77 ± 1.13 b | 3.44, 4.07 | ||||
| TG (mmol/L) | r-IF (n = 37) | 1.66 ± 0.51 | 1.43, 1.89 | 1.46 ± 0.68 a,b | 1.13, 1.76 | 0.604 (0.03) | <0.001 (0.18) * | 0.02 (0.08) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 2.14 ± 0.98 | 1.84, 2.45 | 1.65 ± 0.84 ###,a,c | 1.23, 2.06 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 2.39 ± 0.88 | 2.11, 2.67 | 2.94 ± 1.51 ###,b,c | 2.57, 3.32 | ||||
| TC (mmol/L) | r-IF (n = 37) | 4.03 ± 0.82 | 3.73, 4.34 | 3.57 ± 1.09 a,b | 3.22, 3.93 | 0.002 (0.10) * | 0.06 (0.06) | 0.02 (0.08) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 4.41 ± 1.33 | 3.99, 4.79 | 3.68 ± 1.29 ##,a | 3.21, 4.14 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 4.30 ± 0.97 | 3.94, 4.68 | 4.53 ± 1.15 b | 4.11, 4.96 | ||||
| INS (pmol/L) | r-IF (n = 37) | 112.61 ± 0.96 | 110.70, 114.52 | 92.97 ± 0.88 ###,a,b | 91.23, 94.72 | 0.002 (0.10) * | <0.001 (0.94) * | <0.001 (0.76) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 129.00 ± 0.98 | 127.39, 131.32 | 131.97 ± 0.91 #,a,c | 130.17, 133.77 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 140.83 ± 0.24 | 138.59, 143.06 | 168.14 ± 0.31 ###,b,c | 146.09, 170.18 | ||||
| Cognitive test performance | ||||||||
| Digit Span (scale score) |
r-IF (n = 37) | 7.84 ± 1.86 | 7.19, 8.48 | 8.88 ± 2.38 ##,a,b | 8.18, 9.59 | <0.001 (0.07) * | 0.004 (0.13) * | <0.001 (0.19) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 6.76 ± 2.49 | 5.94, 7.65 | 7.32 ± 2.21 ##,a | 7.42, 9.29 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 7.76 ± 2.28 | 6.96, 8.52 | 5.73 ± 2.44 ###,b | 4.86, 6.56 | ||||
| RAVLT (T5 score) |
r-IF (n = 37) | 30.00 ± 0.66 | 29.23, 31.91 | 36.05 ± 0.61 ###,b | 38.85, 37.25 | <0.001 (0.28) * | <0.001 (0.62) * | <0.001 (0.66) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 30.21 ± 0.68 | 28.40, 32.02 | 32.14 ± 0.62 ###,c | 30.91, 33.37 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 24.70 ± 0.77 | 23.16, 26.24 | 20.41 ± 0.71 ###,b,c | 19.00, 21.81 | ||||
| MMSE (total score) |
r-IF (n = 37) | 19.59 ± 2.05 | 18.99, 20.18 | 24.05 ± 3.25 ###,a,b | 22.98, 25.11 | <0.001 (0.16) * | <0.001 (0.32) * | <0.001 (0.29) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 18.60 ± 2.38 | 17.84, 19.41 | 22.40 ± 3.38 ###,a,c | 20.95, 23.78 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 18.73 ± 1.48 | 17.99, 19.43 | 16.33 ± 4.11 ##,b,c | 15.06, 17.65 | ||||
| MoCA (total score) |
r-IF (n = 37) | 16.82 ± 4.10 | 15.70, 17.94 | 19.43 ± 4.45 ###,b | 18.26, 20.61 | <0.001 (0.18) * | 0.002 (0.12) * | 0.003 (0.11) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 15.84 ± 2.73 | 14.34, 17.32 | 19.00 ± 2.04 ###,c | 17.42, 20.55 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 14.77 ± 3.82 | 13.42, 16.13 | 14.37 ± 4.25 ##,b,c | 12.95, 15.81 | ||||
| Digit Symbol (scale score) | r-IF (n = 37) | 4.11 ± 1.33 | 3.69, 4.53 | 5.39 ± 2.78 ##,b | 4.70, 6.07 | 0.04 (0.64) * | 0.19 (0.03) | <0.001 (0.16) * |
| i-IF (n = 35) | 3.64 ± 1.55 | 3.09, 4.20 | 4.68 ± 1.73 # | 3.76, 5.57 | ||||
| n-IF (n = 27) | 4.43 ± 1.33 | 3.92, 4.94 | 3.33 ± 1.81 ###,b | 2.52, 4.17 | ||||
Repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) between group analyses with regard to time was applied. Numerical covariate (age, level of education) was controlled using repeated measures ANCOVA. Assumptions of normality, homogeneity of variances, compound symmetry, and homogeneity of regression were checked and were fulfilled. * p < 0.05; # significant difference (p < 0.05) as compared to baseline; ## significant difference (p < 0.01) as compared to baseline; ### significant difference (p < 0.001) as compared to baseline; a significant difference between regularly practicing IF (r-IF) and irregularly practicing IF (i-IF); b significant difference between r-IF and non-fasters (n-IF); c significant difference between i-IF and n-IF. BMI: body mass index; FBS: fasting blood sugar; HC: hip circumference; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; INS: insulin; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; MMSE: Mini Mental State Examination; MoCA: Montreal Cognitive Assessment; RAVLT: Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triglycerides; WC: waist circumference.