Table 3.
Multinomial logic regression of factors associated with marginal willingness to pay (WTP) for COVID-19 vaccine (N = 1159).
| Univariate analysis Marginal WTP |
Multinomial logistic regression† |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | MYR50/100 N = 650 |
MYR150/200 N = 349 |
MYR250/300 N = 160 |
MYR150/200 OR (95% CI) |
MYR250/300 OR (95% CI) |
||
| Demographics | |||||||
| Age group (years) | |||||||
| 18–30 | 366 (31.6) | 209 (57.1) | 110 (30.1) | 47 (12.8) | |||
| 31–40 | 374 (32.3) | 202 (54.0) | 109 (29.1) | 63 (16.8) | 0.342 | ||
| 41–50 | 245 (21.1) | 145 (59.2) | 69 (28.2) | 31 (12.7) | |||
| >50 | 174 (15.0) | 94 (54.0) | 61 (35.1) | 19 (10.9) | |||
| Gender | |||||||
| Male | 394 (34.0) | 211 (53.6) | 117 (29.7) | 66 (16.8) | 0.107 | ||
| Female | 765 (66.0) | 439 (57.4) | 232 (30.3) | 94 (12.3) | |||
| Ethnicity | |||||||
| Malay | 546 (47.1) | 354 (64.8) | 141 (25.8) | 51 (9.3) | 1.03 (0.46–2.33) | 0.98 (0.34–2.86) | |
| Chinese | 513 (44.3) | 238 (46.4) | 182 (35.5) | 93 (18.1) | p < .001 | 1.29 (0.57–2.89) | 0.93 (0.33–2.60) |
| Indian | 58 (5.0) | 33 (56.9) | 16 (27.6) | 9 (15.5) | 0.67 (0.24–1.83) | 0.48 (0.13–1.76) | |
| Bumiputera Sabah/Sarawak/Others | 42 (3.6) | 25 (59.5) | 10 (23.8) | 7 (16.7) | Reference | Reference | |
| Highest education level | |||||||
| Secondary and below | 116 (10.0) | 88 (75.9) | 23 (19.8) | 5 (4.3) | p < .001 | 0.73 (0.43–1.22) | 0.35 (0.13–0.93)* |
| Tertiary | 1043 (90.0) | 562 (53.9) | 326 (31.3) | 155 (14.9) | Reference | Reference | |
| Occupation category | |||||||
| Professional and managerial | 643 (55.5) | 301 (46.8) | 228 (35.5) | 114 (17.7) | 1.88 (1.20–2.95)** | 2.08 (1.09–3.96)* | |
| General worker | 236 (20.4) | 155 (65.7) | 58 (24.6) | 23 (9.7) | p < .001 | 1.34 (0.80–2.22) | 1.30 (0.61–2.75) |
| Student | 99 (8.5) | 66 (66.7) | 26 (26.3) | 7 (7.1) | 1.33 (0.72–2.46) | 0.78 (0.29–2.14) | |
| Housewife/Retired/Unemployed/Others | 181 (15.6) | 128 (70.7) | 37 (20.4) | 16 (8.8) | Reference | Reference | |
| Average monthly household income (MYR) | |||||||
| <2000 | 143 (12.3) | 110 (76.9) | 27 (18.9) | 6 (4.2) | 0.31 (0.18–0.52)*** | 0.22 (0.09–0.57)** | |
| 2001–4000 | 229 (19.8) | 168 (73.4) | 38 (16.6) | 23 (10.0) | p < .001 | 0.25 (0.16–0.39)*** | 0.39 (0.22–0.69)** |
| 4001–8000 | 390 (33.6) | 226 (57.9) | 115 (29.5) | 49 (12.6) | 0.47 (0.34–0.65)*** | 0.45 (0.29–0.70)*** | |
| >8000 | 397 (34.3) | 146 (36.8) | 169 (42.6) | 82 (20.7) | Reference | Reference | |
| Location | |||||||
| Urban | 862 (74.4) | 464 (53.8) | 270 (31.3) | 128 (14.8) | 0.025 | 0.96 (0.69–1.34) | 0.95 (0.59–1.54) |
| Suburban/Rural | 297 (25.6) | 186 (62.6) | 79 (26.6) | 32 (10.8) | Reference | Reference | |
| Diagnosed with chronic diseases | |||||||
| Yes | 125 (10.8) | 76 (60.8) | 33 (26.4) | 16 (12.8) | 0.522 | ||
| No | 1034 (89.2) | 574 (55.5) | 316 (30.6) | 144 (13.9) | |||
| Perceived overall health | |||||||
| Very good | 197 (17.0) | 116 (58.9) | 57 (28.9) | 24 (12.2) | |||
| Good | 654 (56.4) | 369 (56.4) | 205 (31.3) | 80 (12.2) | 0.124 | ||
| Fair/Poor | 308 (26.6) | 165 (53.6) | 87 (28.2) | 56 (18.2) | |||
| Known any friends, neighbors and colleagues infected by COVID-19 | |||||||
| Yes | 248 (21.4) | 134 (54.0) | 75 (30.2) | 39 (15.7) | 0.582 | ||
| No | 911 (78.6) | 516 (56.6) | 274 (30.1) | 121 (13.3) | |||
| Health belief | |||||||
| Perceived susceptibility | |||||||
| My chance of getting COVID-19 in the next few months is great | |||||||
| Agree | 687 (59.3) | 381 (57.0) | 199 (29.0) | 107 (15.6) | 0.096 | ||
| Disagree | 472 (40.7) | 269 (57.0) | 150 (31.8) | 53 (11.2) | |||
| I am worried about the likelihood of getting COVID-19 | |||||||
| Agree | 990 (85.4) | 553 (55.9) | 294 (29.7) | 143 (14.4) | 0.292 | ||
| Disagree | 169 (14.6) | 97 (57.4) | 55 (32.5) | 17 (10.1) | |||
| Getting COVID-19 is currently a possibility for me | |||||||
| Agree | 652 (56.3) | 353 (54.1) | 194 (29.8) | 105 (16.1) | 0.034 | Reference | Reference |
| Disagree | 507 (43.7) | 297 (58.6) | 155 (30.6) | 55 (10.8) | 0.99 (0.74–1.30) | 0.68 (0.46–1.01) | |
| Perceived severity | |||||||
| Complications from COVID-19 are serious | |||||||
| Agree | 1107 (95.5) | 619 (55.9) | 332 (30.0) | 156 (14.1) | 0.424 | ||
| Disagree | 52 (4.5) | 31 (59.6) | 17 (32.7) | 4 (7.7) | |||
| I will be very sick if I get COVID-19 | |||||||
| Agree | 903 (77.9) | 516 (57.1) | 262 (29.0) | 125 (13.8) | 0.292 | ||
| Disagree | 256 (22.1) | 134 (52.3) | 87 (34.0) | 35 (13.7) | |||
| I am afraid of getting COVID-19 | |||||||
| Agree | 1060 (91.5) | 596 (56.2) | 311 (29.3) | 153 (14.4) | 0.048 | Reference | Reference |
| Disagree | 99 (8.5) | 54 (54.5) | 38 (38.4) | 7 (7.1) | 0.92 (0.57–1.50) | 0.23 (0.10–0.56)** | |
| Perceived benefits | |||||||
| Vaccination is a good idea because it makes me feel less worried about catching COVID-19 | |||||||
| Agree | 1093 (94.3) | 606 (55.4) | 331 (30.3) | 156 (14.3) | 0.099 | ||
| Disagree | 66 (5.7) | 44 (66.7) | 18 (27.3) | 4 (6.1) | |||
| Vaccination decreases my chance of getting COVID-19 or its complications | |||||||
| Agree | 1096 (94.6) | 606 (55.3) | 336 (30.7) | 154 (14.1) | 0.077 | ||
| Disagree | 63 (5.4) | 44 (69.8) | 13 (20.6) | 6 (9.5) | |||
| Perceived barriers | |||||||
| Worry the possible side-effects of COVID-19 vaccination would interfere with my usual activities | |||||||
| Agree | 894 (77.1) | 515 (57.6) | 261 (29.2) | 118 (13.2) | 0.153 | ||
| Disagree | 265 (22.9) | 135 (50.9) | 88 (33.2) | 42 (15.8) | |||
| I am concern about the efficacy of the COVID-19 vaccination | |||||||
| Agree | 1128 (97.3) | 637 (56.5) | 337 (29.9) | 154 (13.7) | 0.269 | ||
| Disagree | 31 (2.7) | 13 (41.9) | 12 (38.7) | 6 (19.4) | |||
| I am concern about the safety of the COVID-19 vaccination | |||||||
| Agree | 1116 (96.3) | 627 (56.2) | 335 (30.0) | 154 (13.8) | 0.931 | ||
| Disagree | 43 (3.7) | 23 (53.5) | 14 (32.6) | 6 (14.0) | |||
| I am concern of my affordability (high cost) of getting the COVID-19 vaccination | |||||||
| Agree | 1026 (88.5) | 612 (59.6) | 300 (29.2) | 114 (11.1) | p < .001 | Reference | Reference |
| Disagree | 133 (11.5) | 38 (28.6) | 49 (36.8) | 46 (34.6) | 2.17 (1.34–3.52)** | 5.25 (3.08–8.95)*** | |
| I am concern if the new COVID-19 vaccine is halal | |||||||
| Agree | 606 (52.3) | 411 (67.8) | 153 (25.2) | 42 (6.9) | p < .001 | Reference | Reference |
| Disagree | 553 (47.7) | 239 (43.2) | 196 (35.4) | 118 (21.3) | 1.64 (1.09–2.46)* | 4.02 (2.24–7.23)*** | |
| Cues to action | |||||||
| I will only take the COVID-19 vaccine if I was given adequate information about it | |||||||
| Agree | 1136 (98.0) | 634 (55.8) | 345 (30.4) | 157 (13.8) | 0.362 | ||
| Disagree | 23 (2.0) | 16 (69.6) | 4 (17.4) | 3 (13.0) | |||
| I will only take the COVID-19 vaccine if the vaccine is taken by many in the public | |||||||
| Agree | 861 (74.3) | 496 (57.6) | 263 (30.5) | 102 (11.8) | 0.004 | Reference | Reference |
| Disagree | 298 (25.7) | 154 (51.7) | 86 (28.9) | 58 (19.5) | 0.89 (0.64–1.24) | 1.39 (0.91–2.12) | |
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
†Multinomial regression; Reference group: MYR50/100.
Goodness of fit; Pearson Chi square: 993.876, Significant:0.180.