Table 1.

Main species used in cooperage. Characteristics of the wood and properties of the resulting wine.

Species and Distribution	Characteristics	Chemical Composition	Results	Ref.
Traditional Woods Used in Cooperage
American oak (Quercus alba) East USA	Regular sawing, few manufacturing losses, lower price (−0/−60%), very dense	Contribution to whiskey-lactones	Little risk of green taste, low tannin content, sugary character, fast wood intake	[111]
French oak (Q. petraea or Q. robur) North France	Branch removal necessary, large manufacturing losses, high price, medium density	Higher content in phenols and flavonoids	Green taste with too short drying, high tannin content, limited aromatic contribution, slow wood intake	[111]
Non-traditional Woods in Cooperage from Oak Species
Quercus pyrenaica Western Atlantic–Mediterranean regions	Appropriate structural properties (mesh, grain, density, and permeability)	ET, low weight compounds and AC	Higher aromatic intensity and complexity. Woody, balsamic and cocoa notes. High levels of eugenol, guaiacol, cis-β-Methyl-γ-octalactone and other volatile phenols	[112,113,114,115]
Quercus faginea Iberian Peninsula and North Africa	White yellowish sapwood and brown yellowish heartwood. High density and considerable mechanical strength	Castalagin and vescalagin are the main ET	Wines related to trans-resveratrol, p-Hydroxybenzaldehyde, syringic acid, ellagic acid and 5–HMF	[116,117]
Quercus frainetto Balkan Peninsula, South Italy and Northwest Turkey	High durability, ultra-structure comparable to French oaks, lindens similar to Q. alba. Longer heating during taming due to their high density	High content in ET	High bitterness and particular and indefinable aromas. Both attributes can be cushioned by the natural drying and toasting of the wood	[118]
Quercus oocarpa South America	Ultra-structure comparable to French oaks with a clear succession of early and late wood, forming an annual growth	Monomers of ET	Regarding the gustatory aspect, it is similar to Q. petraea	[118]
Quercus humboldtii Colombia	Hard, heavy and easy to work	Most abundant phenolic acids, aldehydes and ET being the same as in Q. alba and Q. petraea. Phenolic composition closer to American ones	Balanced syringaldehyde/vanillin relationship. Higher concentrations of 5-Methylfurfural, guaiacol, isoeugenol, trans-Isoeugenol and syringol. Lower furfural, 5–HMF, trans-β-Methyl-γ-octalactone, and cis-β-Methyl-γ-octalactone content	[96,119,120]
Untraditional Woods in Cooperage Different from Oak Species
Castanea sativa Southern Europe and Asia	The only species alongside Quercus that has been accepted for its use by the International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV)	Low content of oxidizable polyphenols (less suitable for prolonged aging)	Higher content of total PC and of low molecular weight compounds. Higher antioxidant activities. Vanilla notes	[65,121]
Robinia pseudoacacia USA, Europe	Cheap, hard and low porosity	Rich in mono and di-methoxyphenols, acetosyringone and ethyl vanillate. High content in simple volatile PC	Red wines with higher smoky, spicy and fruity notes	[7,122]
Prunus (P. avium and P. cerasus) Europe and western Asia	High porosity and oxygen permeation. Used for short aging times	Aromadendrin, naringenin, taxifolin, isosakuranetin, eriodictyol and prunin	Greater oxygen penetration through their staves	[65,68,123]
Fraxinus spp. Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa	Moderately heavy, strong, rigid, hard and resistant to shocks	High content of 3-Ethyl and 3,5-Dimethylcyclotene, o-cresol, α-Methylcrotonalactone and vanillin. Low content of furanic derivatives	Less vanilla notes than oak	[7]
Morus spp. Asia, Africa, Europe, and North, Central, and South America	Tender, elastic, medium porosity, low release of compounds	Decrease in fruity-note ethyl esters and ethyl-guaiacol and the high cession of ethyl-phenol (a horsey-odor defect)	Hardly suitable for wine aging	[65,124]