Table 2.
Summary of findings from meta-analyses (where possible) or individual studies from randomised and non-randomised controlled trials.
| Outcome | No of Studies | No of Participants | Effect Size (95% CI) | p-Value | Q Statistic | I2 | Egger’s Test p-Value ‡ |
Citations | Figure |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Randomised controlled trials | |||||||||
| Depression | 24 6 |
7255 1520 |
SMD −0.24 (−0.35, −0.14) OR 1.79 (1.46, 2.21) |
<0.001 <0.001 |
78.3 3.58 |
76% 0% |
0.275 0.608 |
[13,14,18,19,36,38,40,42,43,46,50,51,53,55,57,63,67,68,70,76,78,83,84,86,87,88,91,93,100,102,109] | Figure 3 |
| Quality of Life | 22 | 12,370 | SMD 0.12 (0.09, 0.15) | <0.001 | 57.38 | 51% | 0.556 | [18,19,21,22,41,46,49,50,51,53,59,68,72,76,86,89,91,100,102,105,106,108] | Figure 4 |
| Blood pressure | |||||||||
| BP control | 6 | 1202 | OR 2.03 (1.56, 2.65) | <0.001 | 5.30 | 6% | 0.347 | [16,39,42,45,61,64,68,71,82,90,94,96] | Figure 5 |
| Systolic BP | 6 | 1947 | SMD −0.08 (−0.17, 0.01) | 0.09 | 8.97 | 44% | 0.737 | ||
| Diastolic BP | 5 | 1836 | SMD −0.12 (−0.27, 0.02) | 0.10 | 7.82 | 49% | 0.260 | ||
| Glycated haemoglobin | [16,39,43,64,68,71,77,82,96] | Figure 6 | |||||||
| Glycaemic control | 3 | 726 | OR 2.37 (0.86, 6.51) | 0.001 | 15.00 | 87% | NA | ||
| HbA1c | 6 | 2044 | SMD −0.21 (−0.30, −0.12) | <0.001 | 27.75 | 82% | 0.405 | ||
| LDL Cholesterol | 4 | 1086 | SMD −0.25 (−0.37, −0.13) | <0.001 | 1.64 | 0% | NA | [64,68,71,96] | Figure 7A |
| Total Cholesterol | 1 | 888 | SMD 0.00 (−0.13, 0.13) | 1.00 | NA | NA | NA | [82] | Figure 7B |
| Hospital admissions | 3 | 4770 | OR 0.90 (0.80, 1.03) | 0.12 | 0.67 | 0% | NA | [20,48,54] | Figure 8 |
| Self-management (PACIC scores) | 3 | 2440 | SMD 0.24 (0.03, 0.44) | 0.02 | 11.48 | 83% | NA | [14,72,89] | Figure 9 |
| Cost-effectiveness | 17 | 12,612 | SMD 0.17 (0.07, 0.26) | 0.001 | 87.84 | 82% | 0.206 | [13,22,37,44,46,52,58,59,60,65,66,69,73,79,80,92,98] | Figure 10 |
| Non-randomised trials | |||||||||
| Depression | 1 | 314 | SMD −0.22 (−0.45, 0.01) | 0.06 | NA | NA | NA | [109] | Figure 3 |
| Quality of Life | 2 | 833 | SMD −0.08 (−0.21, 0.06) | 0.28 | 0.94 | 0% | NA | [22,108] | Figure 4 |
| Blood pressure | Figure 5 | ||||||||
| Systolic BP | 1 | 727 | SMD −0.30 (−0.45, −0.16) | <0.001 | NA | NA | NA | [17] | |
| Glycated haemoglobin | 1 | 727 | SMD −0.20 (−0.35, −0.06) | 0.006 | NA | NA | NA | [17] | Figure 6 |
| LDL Cholesterol | 1 | 727 | SMD 0.06 (−0.09, 0.20) | 0.43 | NA | NA | NA | [17] | Figure 7 |
| HDL Cholesterol | 1 | 727 | SMD 0.15 (0.00, 0.29) | 0.05 | NA | NA | NA | [17] | - |
| Total Cholesterol | 1 | 727 | SMD 0.16 (0.01, 0.30) | 0.04 | NA | NA | NA | [17] | Figure 8 |
| Hospital admissions | 2 | 912 | OR 0.63 (0.48, 0.83) | 0.001 | 0.02 | 0% | NA | [21,111] | Figure 9 |
| Cost-effectiveness | 1 | 358 | SMD 0.19 (−0.01, 0.40) | 0.07 | NA | NA | NA | [108] | Figure 10 |
NA—not applicable; SMD—Standard Mean Difference; OR—Odds ratio; ‡ Egger’s test was conducted only for outcomes with at least 6 studies. Note: The slight discrepancy in the effect sizes in this table to that reported in the manuscript and figures is because the effects sizes are classified based on their study design. I2 describes the percentage of total variation across studies that is due to heterogeneity rather than chance. A value of 0% indicates no observed heterogeneity, and larger values show increasing heterogeneity.