Table 4.

Odds for the relationship between energy deprivation and depression in Ghana using multinomial logistic regression with fixed effects (MLR-FE).

Variables	Mildly Depressed	Moderately Depressed	Severely Depressed
MEPI	0.619 ***	1.582 ***	1.936 ***
	(0.237)	(0.413)	(0.524)
Education (base: none)
Junior high school (JHS)	−0.360 ***	−0.162	−0.655 ***
	(0.109)	(0.162)	(0.220)
Senior high school (SHS)	−0.664 ***	−0.290	−0.095
	(0.187)	(0.289)	(0.329)
Tertiary	−0.506 ***	−0.553 *	−0.992 **
	(0.195)	(0.326)	(0.462)
Age of household head	0.004	0.004	−0.001
	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.008)
Female	0.526 ***	0.679 ***	1.063 ***
	(0.113)	(0.165)	(0.226)
Ln (income)	−0.231 ***	−0.203 **	0.051
	(0.065)	(0.096)	(0.129)
Health insurance (yes)	−0.175 *	−0.345 **	0.020
	(0.106)	(0.156)	(0.226)
Smoking (yes)	0.117	0.547 **	0.997 ***
	(0.182)	(0.249)	(0.309)
Body mass index (BMI)	0.010	−0.202	0.162
	(0.148)	(0.181)	(0.296)
Urban	−0.172	−0.052	0.264
	(0.114)	(0.184)	(0.234)
Region (base: Western)
Central	−0.459 **	−0.0361	0.546
	(0.207)	(0.287)	(0.387)
Greater Accra	−0.049	0.114	−0.460
	(0.186)	(0.302)	(0.471)
Volta	0.0681	0.264	0.136
	(0.218)	(0.348)	(0.530)
Eastern	0.0495	0.490*	0.924**
	(0.188)	(0.275)	(0.374)
Ashanti	−0.149	−0.123	0.047
	(0.174)	(0.284)	(0.390)
Brong Ahafo	0.265	0.089	0.254
	(0.185)	(0.304)	(0.406)
Northern	0.853 ***	1.315 ***	1.472 ***
	(0.234)	(0.317)	(0.470)
Upper East	0.719 ***	1.065 ***	0.866
	(0.274)	(0.396)	(0.619)
Upper West	0.621	1.244	−14.920 ***
	(0.705)	(0.856)	(0.531)
Constant	−0.457	−1.701 *	−5.589 ***
	(0.743)	(0.963)	(1.495)
LR test (FE vs pooled)	7.27 ***
Log-likelihood	−2912.66
McFadden’s pseudo R-squared	0.053
VIF	1.43
Observations	3754

Robust standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1.