Table 3.

Overview of primary diagnostic assays to detect infection with Schistosoma mansoni and Giardia duodenalis.

Species	Direct Diagnosis	Antigen Detection	Molecular Diagnosis
S. mansoni	Identification of ova in concentrated faecal smear via Kato-Katz technique [62,71]	Detection of circulating cathodic antigen (CCA) or circulating anodic antigen (CAA) in urine samples using ELISA or lateral-flow test strips [72,73]	Detection and amplification of species-specific DNA in faecal samples using PCR/qPCR [74], (LAMP and RPA assays have also been developed [71,75,76,77]).
G. duodenalis	Identification of cysts in concentrated faecal smear via formalin/ether concentration techniques, flotation techniques or immunofluorescent antibody microscopy [68]	Detection of species-specific antigens in faecal samples using ELISA or lateral-flow test strips [11,78,79,80]	Detection and amplification of species-specific DNA in faecal samples using PCR/qPCR [78], (LAMP and RPA assays have also been developed [81,82,83]).