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Adsorptive interactions between charged nanoparticles (CNPs) and the plasma membrane. (A) Electrostatic interactions with anionic syndecans and glypicans rich in heparan sulfate. (B) Cooperative membrane wrapping phenomena by cumulative CNP interactions with anionic phospholipids. (C) Transient pore formation by small CNPs (≤20 nm) due to strong attraction to the inner membrane layer in phosphatidylserine-rich regions. (Created with BioRender.com).
