Table 3.

Prevalence and/or levels, measurement tools, and correlates of NCD-related stigma.

Study	Stigma Outcome/ Dependent Variable	n (male %)	Measurement Tool	Score Range	Validity	Reliability	Prevalence (%)/ Level of Stigma (Mean, SD)	Explored Associations with Correlates
CRD—Asthma
Andrews et al. (2013)	Perceived stigma	72 (26.3% male)	19-item stigma scale for mental health	0 to 100 (%)	Pre-validated: details NR	α = 0.89	Perceived stigma: 86% (51% low stigma; 21% medium stigma; 14% high stigma; 14% no stigma)	Asthma control/morbidity (d = 0.820, p = 0.02) Physical health score (r = −0.41, p = 0.001) Mental health score (r = −0.23, p = 0.045)
CVD—Stroke
Sarfo et al. (2017)	Perceived stigma (personal stigma; family stigma; community/social stigma)	200 (52.5%)	8-item Stigma Scale for Chronic Illness (SSCI-8)	8 to 40	Pre-validated: details NR	NR	Perceived personal stigma: 79% (13.7, SD 5.7) Perceived family stigma: 63% (11.9, SD 4.6) Perceived community stigma: 62% (11.4, SD 4.4)	Perceived personal stigma vs: No family history of stroke (β = 1.58; p = 0.03) Depression (NS) Employment (Employed vs. Unemployed) (NS) Stroke severity (NS) HRQoL (NS)
Diabetes Type 2
Gredig et al. (2017)	Perceived stigma and experienced stigma	3347 (54.8% male)	33-item Experienced Stigma and 26-item Perceived Stigma (self-developed questionnaire)	0 to 100 (%)	Pre-validated: construct validity	NR	Experienced stigma: 68.5% Perceived stigma: 84.4%	Experienced stigma vs: Self-esteem (β = −0.067; p = 0.002) Psychological distress (β = 0.166; p < 0.001) Depressive symptoms (β = 0.156; p < 0.001) Perceived social support (β = −0.073; p < 0.002) Perceived stigma vs: Self-esteem (β = −0.176; p < 0.001) Psychological distress (β = 0.367; p < 0.001) Depressive symptoms (β = 0.331; p < 0.001) Perceived social support (β = −0.220; p < 0.001)
Kato et al. (2017)	Self (internalized)-stigma	209 (80.4% male)	39-item self-stigma scale in Japanese (SSSJ)	0 to 117	Pre-validated: details NR	α = 0.96	Mean self/internalized stigma: 72.5, SD 6.38	Self-esteem and social participation (d = 0.79, p < 0.001)
Lee et al. (2015)	Perceived stigma	125 (68% male)	8-item questionnaire to assess perceived stigma (self-developed questionnaire)	0 to 100%	NR	NR	Perceived stigma: 12%	Diabetes affects work (d = 0.41; p < 0.05) Diabetes affects work prospect (d = 0.39; p < 0.05)
Cancer—Miscellaneous
Cho et al. (2013)	Perceived cancer stigma (attitudes towards cancer) and experienced ancer stigma (social discrimination)	466 (46.1% male)	12-item questionnaire to assess cancer stigma (8-item attitudes towards cancer, and 4-items social discrimination) (self-developed questionnaire)	0 to 100%	NR	Attitudes towards Cancer: impossibility of recovery (α = 0.75) and stereotypes (α = 0.76) Social discrimination (α = 0.89)	Perceived and experienced cancer stigma: 30% [Impossibility of recovery: cancer impossible to be treated (30.8%), difficult to be healthy again (40%), cannot be socially active because of cancer (36.2%)] [Stereotypes: cancer patients recognized by appearance (31.3%), have difficult time having sexual intimacy (31.3%)] [Social discrimination: avoided by friends (10.1%), avoided by neighbors (8.2%), problems with family (10.5%), discrimination from employers and coworkers (5%)]	Negative attitude towards cancer (Ref: positive attitude) vs: Depression (OR: 2.72, p < 0.05) Experience of discrimination (Ref: No) vs: Depression (OR: 2.27, p < 0.05)
Park et al. (2010)	Experienced stigma (discrimination)	748 (59.0% male)	Single-item indicator for experienced stigma and 10-items for types of discrimination experienced (self-developed questionnaire)	0 to 100%	NR	NR	Experienced discrimination in the workplace: 5.6% [reduction in salary (27.1%), loss of opportunity to display ability (13.6%), pressure to quit or change job (13.6%), difficulty of revealing cancer diagnosis (11.9%)]	Experienced discrimination vs: Disability (OR: 4.82, CI: 2.07–11.20) Change in employment status (NS) Unemployed (NS)
Cancer—Lung
Brown et al. (2014)	Perceived health-related stigma (lung cancer stigma)	149 (25% male)	31-item Cataldo Lung Cancer Stigma Scale (CLCSS)	31 to 124	Pre-validated: construct validity	α = 0.96	Mean perceived stigma level: 75.9, SD 18.20	QoL (β = −0.136, p = 0.015) Anxiety (r = 0.418, p < 0.001) Depression (r = 0.562, p < 0.001),
Cataldo et al. (2013)	Perceived health-related stigma (lung cancer stigma)	144 (26% male)	31-item Cataldo Lung Cancer Stigma Scale (CLCSS)	31 to 124	Pre-validated: construct validity	α = 0.97	Mean perceived stigma level: 75.7, SD 18.30	Symptom severity (β = 0.140, p < 0.05) Anxiety (r = 0.413; p < 0.001) Depression (r = 0.559, p < 0.001) Symptom severity (r = 0.483, p < 0.001)
Gonzalez et al. (2012)	Perceived stigma	95 (41.1% male)	24-item Social Impact Scale (SIS)	Total score SIS (0 to 80)	Pre-validated: details NR	α = 0.81	Mean total SIS score (perceived stigma): 42.9, SD 11.87	Depression (β = 0.19, p = 0.03)
Cancer—Prostate
Wood et al. (2017)	Self/internalized stigma and social stigma	85 (all male)	24-item Social Impact Scale (SIS): internalized shame/stigma, social rejection, financial insecurity, social isolation	Internalized shame/stigma (5 to13) Social rejection (9 to 20) Social isolation (7 to 23) Financial insecurity (3 to 12)	Pre-validated: details NR	Internalized shame (α = 0.73), social rejection (α = 0.84), financial insecurity (α = 0.85), social isolation (α = 0.92)	SIS internalized shame: 7, SD 2.42 SIS social rejection: 10.63, SD 2.71 SIS social isolation: 9.61, SD 3.80 SIS financial insecurity: 4, SD 1.48	SIS internalized shame vs. QoL (β = −0.15, p < 0.001) SIS social rejection vs. QoL (β = 0.18, p < 0.001) SIS social isolation vs. QoL (β = −0.36, p < 0.001) SIS financial insecurity vs. QoL (β = −0.34, p < 0.001)

NR—not reported; NS—non-significant association; α—Cronbach’s alpha; QoL—quality of life.