Table 3.

Levels of phenolic compounds and volatile oils (mg g⁻¹ dry weight) and biological activities in Thymus vulgare grown under normal conditions (control) or the effect of eCO₂ (620 ppm), AMF or their combination (AMF-eCO₂). Values are mean ± standard error of five independent replicates. Asterisks indicate significant changes (* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01) compared to control, as revealed by Student’s t-test. Lowercase letters indicate significant differences (^a p < 0.05; ^b p < 0.01) between AMF alone and the combined AMF+eCO₂ treatment.

Metabolite	Control	eCO2	AMF	AMF + eCO2
Phenolic acids
Caffeic acid	0.46 ± 0.04	0.71 ± 0.04 *	0.66 ± 0.03 *	0.73 ± 0.03
Chlorogenic acid	0.01 ± 0	0.01 ± 0	0.01 ± 0	0.01 ± 0 a
Protocatechuic acid	4.11 ± 0.32	4.47 ± 0.35	4.38 ± 0.45	6.42 ± 0.6
Gallic acid	0.34 ± 0.02	0.48 ± 0.06	0.39 ± 0.03	0.5 ± 0.02 a
p-Coumaric acid	2.66 ± 0.22	2.82 ± 0.35	2.32 ± 0.26	3.76 ± 0.36 a
Chicoric acid	1.28 ± 0.13	1.44 ± 0.15	1.23 ± 0.15	1.87 ± 0.16 a
Rosmarinic acid	1.72 ± 0.2	1.89 ± 0.1	1.59 ± 0.1	2.5 ± 0.11 b
Flavonoids
Quercetin	0.07 ± 0	0.07 ± 0	0.08 ± 0.01	0.08 ± 0.01
Naringenin	0.05 ± 0	0.06 ± 0	0.05 ± 0.01	0.06 ± 0.01
Kaempferol	0.08 ± 0	0.1 ± 0.01 *	0.08 ± 0	0.13 ± 0.01 b
Luteolin	0.07 ± 0	0.1 ± 0.01 *	0.06 ± 0	0.13 ± 0.01 b
Apigenin	0.11 ± 0.02	0.13 ± 0	0.14 ± 0.01	0.17 ± 0.01 a
Rutin	0.01 ± 0	0.01 ± 0	0.01 ± 0	0.01 ± 0
Volatile oils
alpha-pineno	1.62 ± 0.21	2.1 ± 0.08	2 ± 0.03	2.97 ± 0.1 a,b
Beta-pineno	2.79 ± 0.36	3.57 ± 0.27	3.29 ± 0.43	5.13 ± 0.23 a
p-cymene	4.45 ± 0.32	5.94 ± 0.48	5.85 ± 0.51	8.31 ± 0.37 a
limonene	0.1 ± 0.03	0.08 ± 0.01	0.1 ± 0	0.12 ± 0.02
1,8-cineol	8.23 ± 1.04	8.54 ± 1.19	9.61 ± 1.34	8.51 ± 0.73
linalol	3.42 ± 0.44	3.54 ± 0.49	3.19 ± 0.7	3.96 ± 0.23
Camphor	0.64 ± 0.08	0.82 ± 0.09	0.76 ± 0.1	1.18 ± 0.09 a
Borneol	0.39 ± 0.05	0.4 ± 0.06	0.36 ± 0.08	0.45 ± 0.09
Thymol	1.5 ± 0.19	5.66 ± 0.48 **	2.47 ± 0.28 *	6.55 ± 0.48 b
Carvacrol	4.97 ± 0.63	6.35 ± 0.68	5.85 ± 0.76	9.13 ± 0.15 a
alpha-Phellandrene	2.16 ± 0.21	3.15 ± 0.34	2.9 ± 0.38	2.86 ± 0.17
beta-Phellandrene	0.25 ± 0.03	0.26 ± 0.03	0.26 ± 0.04	0.32 ± 0.04
Humuline	0.14 ± 0.01	0.17 ± 0.01	1.06 ± 0.05 **	0.7 ± 0.04 b
Myrcene	1.84 ± 0.12	2 ± 0.4	4.07 ± 0.41 **	2.64 ± 0.12 a
alpha-thyjone	1.1 ± 0.05	1.1 ± 0.04	1.09 ± 0.08	1.04 ± 0.03
Tricyclene	0.3 ± 0.02	0.66 ± 0.04 **	0.65 ± 0.07 *	1.21 ± 0.14 a
Antioxidant capacity (FRAP)	17.08 ± 1.8	27.57 ± 1 **	22.85 ± 1.13	35.91 ± 0.91 b
Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC)	743.41 ± 33.19	1034.6 ± 108.25	983.99 ± 35.17 **	1680.57 ± 81.71 b
% inhibition of LDL oxidation
TBARS)	14.08 ± 0.99	26.56 ± 0.76 **	24.55 ± 0.98 **	35.32 ± 2.25 a
conjugated dienes	17.7 ± 2.1	32.56 ± 0.51 **	28.51 ± 1.16 *	43.53 ± 1.29 b
% inhibition of hemolysis	13.4 ± 0.83	22.02 ± 1.97 *	16.45 ± 1.05	28.28 ± 1.08 b