Table 1.

List of studies reporting the interactions between Cerenkov sources and nanosized particles. Briefly, the information reported in the columns is: progressive number (1), nanoparticles tested (2), Cerenkov radiation used to excite the nanoparticles (3), type of link between CR source and NPs (4), application of the study (mainly in vitro, in vivo, ex vivo) and cell lines in case of cancer imaging/therapy (5), main results of the study (6), notes (7), optical instrument used (8), reference (9). For an exhaustive explanation, see the main text.

N	NPs	Source	NP–CR Source Link	Applications	Main Results	Note	Instrument	Reference
01	CdSe/ZnS Quantum dots QD655, QD705, QD800	131 I	Separated	In vitro and in vivo.	Feasibility of using radiation luminescence as an internal source to illuminate QDs.		IVIS 200 and IVIS Spectrum	Liu et al. (2010) [11]
02	Quantum dots (Qtracker705)	64Cu, 18F and 99mTc	Separated	In vitro and in vivo.	Qtracker705 and 18F-FDG showed CRET ratios in vitro as high as 8.8 ± 1.1. In vivo in pseudo tumor impregnated with Qtracker705 following intravenous injection of 18F-FDG showed CRET ratios as high as 3.5 ± 0.3. No efficient energy transfer detected with 99mTc.	Definition of Cerenkov radiation energy transfer (CRET) ratio.	IVIS 100	Dothager et al. (2010) [12]
03	Tyramine conjugated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (TCL-SPION) C = 4–11 nm H ~40 nm	124I	Bound	In vitro and in vivo. Sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) detection of mouse bearing breast 4T1 tumor.	Facilitated noninvasive differentiation between tumor-metastasized sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) and tumor-free SLNs	Triple-modality optical/PET/MRI.	IVIS 200	Park et al. (2010) [40]
04	Radioluminescent nanophosphors (RLNPs) Barium yttrium fluoride (Ba0.55Y0.3F2) doped with EuropiumC = 14 nm	18F	Separated	In vitro and in vivo.	Presentation of facile synthesis and surface modification process to produce water-soluble radioluminescent lanthanide-doped nanophosphors. FDG-stimulated optical imaging of the mice bearing inclusions clearly displayed enhanced emission at 700 nm on the flank containing RLNPs	PET and X-ray validation	IVIS Spectrum	Sun et al. (2011) [29]
05	Radioluminescent nanophosphors (RLNPs) Barium yttrium fluoride (Ba0.55Y0.3F2) nanocrystals doped with terbium (0.5%) or europium (0.5%) C = 14 nm H ~27 nm	18F and X-ray tube	Separated	In vitro and in vivo.	RLNPs doped with terbium or europium can be distinguished in optical images in gelatin phantoms. RLNPs aid in the down-conversion of Cerenkov light emitted from the radiopharmaceutical.	PET validation.	IVIS Spectrum	Carpenter et al. (2012) [30]
06	Quantum dots (QD800)	32P	Separated	In vitro.	Primary CR and beta particles contribute almost equally to the excitation of the QDs. Good agreement of the light intensity emission with the inverse squared law of the NP–CR source distance.	P32 source covered alternatively with plexiglass slabs or black paper to obtain pure Cerenkov source or pure beta emitter source	IVIS Spectrum	Boschi et al. (2012) [13]
07	Au nanocages C = 33 nm	198Au	Incorporated	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. murine mammary carcinoma (EMT-6)	Au nanocages show emission with wavelengths in the visible and near-infrared regions, enabling luminescence imaging of the whole mouse in vivo, as well as the organs ex vivo.	First incorporation of CR source into the nanostructure for imaging purpose	IVIS Lumina II XR	Wang et al. (2013) [17]
08	Fluorescenin (FAM/FITC). Cyanine (Cy5.5, Cy7 ICG). Quantum dots (QD565, QD605, QD800). Au NPs	68Ga, 18F, 89Zr	Separated	In vitro, in vivo. Mouse squamous cell carcinoma (SCC-7) and human breast cancer (BT-20).	Reduced background signal compared to conventional fluorescence imaging. Approach useful to quantitatively determine prognostically relevant enzymatic activity.	PET and CT validation	IVIS200	Thorek et al. (2013) [14]
09	Gold nanocluster C = 2.56 ± 0.50 nm	64Cu	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Human primary glioblastoma (U87).	Portion of the energy of Cerenkov radiation serves to excite AuNCs in 64Cu-doped AuNCs. 64Cu-doped AuNCs can be applied as an alternative indicator of PET signal.	Self-illuminating gold nanocluster for dual-modality PET and near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging	IVIS Lumina II	Hu et al. (2014) [18]
10	Quantum dots (CdSe/ZnS QDs) QD526 QD580 QD636 H = from 14.1 to 28.4 nm PEG-coated	64Cu	Bound	In vitro, in vivo Human primary glioblastoma (U87).	Favorable imaging without the issue of dissociation of 64Cu from the particles and controllable and enhanced long-wavelength luminescence emission detectable by in vivo imaging.	First time for direct doping of 64Cu PET isotope into QDs via a cation-exchange reaction and endowing them with luminescence properties. PET validation	IVIS Lumina II	Sun et al. (2014) [15]
11	Au nanostructures: nanospheres, nanodisks, nanorods, nanocages	198Au	Incorporated	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Murine mammary carcinoma (EMT-6)	Nanospheres showed the best blood circulation, the lowest clearance by the reticuloendothelial system, and the highest overall tumor uptake relative to nanodisks, nanorods, and nanocages. Nanorods and nanocages could reach the cores of the tumors, whereas nanospheres and nanodisks were only observed on the surfaces	PET and autoradiography validation	IVIS 100	Black et al. (2014) [19]
12	Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIO)	18F	Separated	In vitro, in vivo. Human fibrosarcoma (HT1080)	Demonstration of quenching of Cerenkov emissions using nanoparticle platforms to provide disease-relevant information including tumor vascularity and specific antigen expression	Several proof of principle models using nanoparticles and clinically approved agents PET validation	IVIS 200	Thorek et al. (2014) [42]
13	(PEG)-coated TiO2 nanoparticles, transferrin-coated TiO2 nanoparticles titanocene-transferrin- TiO2 nanoparticles	18F, 64Cu	Separated	In vitro, in vivo, ex-vivo Human fibrosarcoma (HT1080)	Observed a remarkable shrinkage of the tumor volume (40 ± 5%) within three days of CR-induced therapy initiation. Complete tumor regression was achieved by 30 days and translated into complete remission without a significant loss in body weight up to four months posttreatment	Phototherapy Fluorescence imaging and PET validation		Kotagiri et al. (2015) [43]
14	Si nanoparticles	Deuterium lamp	Separated	Not for bioimaging applications. New sensor materials field.	Placing a film of nanoparticles in front of a standard visible-wavelength detecting photosensor, the response of the sensor was significantly enhanced at wavelengths < 320 nm.	To enhance Cerenkov emission and for all experiments requiring sensitivity to UV photons	Hamamatsu MPPC	Magill et al. (2015) [54]
15	Terbium doped Gd2O2S (Gd2O2S:Tb)nanoparticles	68Ga	Separated	In vitro, in vivo Gastro intestinal tumor	50-fold improvement in detection sensitivity, which guaranteed meeting the demands of the clinical diagnosis of gastrointestinal tract tumors.	Endoscopy	EMCCD camera iXon3 888, Andor	Cao et al. (2015) [31]
16	Terbium doped Gd2O2S Microparticles C = few µm	18F	Separated	In vitro, in vivo Gastro intestinal tumor	RLMPs significantly improve the intensity and the penetration capacity of CLI, which has been extended to as deep as 15 mm. Microparticles can be excited by gamma rays, but can barely be excited by Cerenkov luminescence.		IVIS system	Cao et al. (2015) [55]
17	Europium oxide nanoparticles (EO) C = 85 ± 22 nm.	18F, 99mTc, 131I	Separated	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo human breast tumor (Bcap-37) mouse breast tumor (4T1) human glioma tumor (U87MG) human liver tumor (HepG2)	Gamma radiation is the major cause of EO excitation. Strong optical signals with high signal-to-background ratios, an ideal tissue penetration spectrum and activatable imaging ability. More effective detection of tumor lesions with low radioactive tracer uptake or small tumor lesions.	Comparison with Quantum dots (QD620) PET validation	IVIS system	Hu et al. (2015) [32]
18	Gold nanoclusters conjugated with blood serum proteins (AuNCs)	18F, 90Y, 99mTc	Separated	In vitro, in vivo, ex-vivo Breast carcinoma (MDA-MB-231)	AuNCs convert beta-decaying radioisotope energy into tissue-penetrating optical signals between 620 and 800 nm with 18F and 90 Y but not with 99mTc. Optical emission from AuNCs is not proportional to Cerenkov radiation, indicating that the energy transfer between the radionuclide and AuNC is only partially mediated by Cerenkov photons. Excitation by high-energy photons is highly inefficient.	Definition of luminescence output (LO) of AuNC as a result of interactions with radioisotope	IVIS Spectrum	Volotskova et al. (2015) [20]
19	GdF3:90Y/Y nanoplates C = from 8.1 ± 1.2 nm to 15.5 ± 1.3 nm	90Y	Incorporated	In vitro	Synthesis of a plethora of nanocrystals with different shapes doped with 90Y. Linear relationship between total radiance and radioactivity, suggesting that 90Y-doped nanocrystals are applicable for quantitative optical imaging studies.	Evaluation of MRI capabilities of 90Y-doped GdF3 nanocrystals	IVIS Lumina II	Paik et al. (2015) [48]
20	Lipid-calcium-phosphate nanoparticle (177Lu-LCP) H = 36 ± 9 nm	177Lu	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo Human nonsmall cell lung cancer cells (H460) Human bladder cancer cells (UMUC3)	177Lu-LCP functioned as in vivo anticancer therapy in addition to radiographic imaging via the dual decay modes of 177Lu. Treatment with just one dose of 177Lu-LCP showed significant in vivo tumor inhibition in two subcutaneous xenograft tumor models.	Tumor accumulation of 177Lu-LCP was measured using both SPECT and Cerenkov imaging modalities in live mice.	IVIS Kinetic	Satterlee et al. (2015) [27]
21	Glucose-based polymer dextran (89Zr-PNP) C = from 34 to 82 nm	89Zr	Bound	In vitro, in vivo	89Zr-PNP guided the surgical resection of sentinel lymph nodes, utilizing their Cerenkov luminescence. PNP also made it possible to monitor drug release via MRI, through the quenching of the gadolinium signal by the coloaded drug, making them a new multifunctional theranostic nanotechnology platform.	PET/CT validation	IVIS Spectrum	Kaittanis et al. (2015) [56]
22	Gd2O2S: Eu3+ nanophosphors	89Zr	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo	Excitation of Gd2O2S:Eu nanoparticles by 89Zr was successfully observed. Increasing the nanoparticle concentration or radioactivity increased the intensity of the emission signals. The distance between the donor and the receptor significantly influenced the RL intensity.	PET validation	IVIS Spectrum	Ai et al. (2016) [57]
23	Titanium dioxide (titania) nanoparticles (NPs) C = 5 nm	X-ray external beam	Separated	In vitro Human lung carcinoma cells (A549)	6 MV radiation produced the most CR per unit dose deposition, i.e., about 10 times higher than that of 18F. Synergistic effect for the combination of ionizing radiation and titania NPs was observed in the 6MV experiments, where 20% more cancer cells were killed in the group with both radiation and NPs compared to with radiation alone.	External beam radiotherapy Monte Carlo simulations with 18F, 192Ir and 60Co as internal sources		Ouyang et al. (2016) [58]
24	Poly(acrylamidoethylamine)-b-poly (DL-lactide) block copolymer-based degradable, cationic, shell-cross-linked knedel-like NPs (Dg-cSCKs)H = 135 ± 40 nm	123I, 124I, 131I, 76Br	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo.	In vivo characterization of pharmacokinetics and fate of the NPs by radiolabeling Dg-cSCKs using a multimodal, noninvasive imaging approach that incorporated positron emission tomography (PET) and Cerenkov luminescence imaging.	Intratracheal injection for lung gene transfer. PET validation	IVIS 100	Black et al. (2016) [36]
25	Radioiodine embedded gold (Au) nanoparticles (Rie AuNPs) C = 5, 20 and 42 nm	124I, 125I	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo.	Simple and straightforward synthetic scheme for producing gold-based imaging agents that are applicable as a dual bio-imaging modality by combining nuclear imaging and CLI.	PET/SPECT validation	IVIS Lumina III	Lee et al. (2016) [47]
26	Peghilated radioiodine embedded gold (Au) nanoparticles (PEG-RIe-AuNPs) C = 20 nm	124I	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo.	In vivo imaging reveals sentinel lymph nodes as early as 1 h post PEG-RIe-AuNP-injection, with peak signals achieved at 6 h postinjection. The data provide strong evidence that PEG-RIe-AuNPs are promising as potential lymphatic tracers in biomedical imaging for pre- and intra- operative surgical guidance	NPs useful for sentinel lymph node detection via PET and CLI PET/CT validation	IVIS Lumina III	Lee et al. (2016) [21]
27	Hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles ([89Zr]HMSN-Ce6) H ∼130 ± 2.1 nm	89Zr	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Murine breast cancer (4T1)	In vitro cell viability experiments demonstrated dose-dependent cell deconstruction as a function of the concentration of Ce6 and 89Zr. In vivo studies showed inhibition of tumor growth when mice were subcutaneously injected with [89Zr]HMSN-Ce6, and histological analysis of the tumor section showed damage to tumor tissues, implying that reactive oxygen species mediated the destruction.	Photodynamic Therapy Activation of chlorin e6 (Ce6) to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) PET imaging	IVIS Spectrum	Kamkaew et al. (2016) [23]
28	Europium oxide (EO) nanoparticles C = 85 ± 22 nm.	131I, 18F, 68Ga, 99mTc	Separated	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Human hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC).	A mixture of 68GaCl3 and EO nanoparticles yielded the strongest optical signals compared with the other mixtures. Radiopharmaceutical-excited fluorescence tomography (REFT) can detect more tumors than small-Animal PET in hepatocellular carcinoma-bearing mice, and achieved more accurate 3D distribution information than Cerenkov luminescence tomography.	PET/CT imaging.	IVIS Kinetic	Hu et al. (2017) [33]
29	Dual-labeled nanoparticles based on lipid micelles (89Zr-QD-MC) nanoemulsions (89Zr-QD-NE), and polymeric biocompatible nanoplatforms (89Zr-QD-BP). H = from 45 to 75 nm	89Zr	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Human prostate cancer (DU145)	The intensity of converted light is linearly related to the concentration of the spectral converter, and the slope is related to the quantum yield of the fluorophore. Pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and whole-body imaging of QD and 89Zr dual-labeled nanoparticles.	PET/CT imaging	IVIS Spectrum	Zhao et al. (2017) [16]
30	Europium oxide (EO) nanoparticles C = 85 ± 22 nm.	18F, 11C	Separated	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Mouse breast cancer (4T1) Human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).	By mixing the 18F–FDG and EO nanoparticles, strong near-infrared fluorescent light is emitted, and its peak is 620 nm. The total flux is almost 70 times higher than the sum of the optical signals of EO nanoparticles and 18F–FDG alone. EO at a very low dose can be excited by radiopharmaceuticals of very low dose to produce an optical signal. Mediated radiopharmaceutical-excited fluorescent (REF) image-guided cancer surgery strategy technique exhibited excellent performance in detecting invisible ultrasmall tumors (even less than 1 mm) and residual tumor tissue.	For precise image-guided tumor-removal surgery. Employs the internal dual excitation of EO nanoparticles by both gamma rays and Cerenkov luminescence of radiopharmaceuticals.	IVIS Kinetic	Hu et al. (2017) [34]
31	Citrate-capped (Cit) copper sulfide (CuS) nanoparticles on the surface of [89Zr]-labeled hollow mesoporous silica nanoshells (HMSN) filled with porphyrin molecules H~150 nm (HMSN), ~10 nm (CuS-Cit)	89Zr	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Murine breast cancer (4T1).	Development of a novel, biocompatible, hybrid nanoplatform to seek and treat cancer in vivo. [89Zr]-labeled HMSN shell, CuS nanosatellites and photosensitizer porphyrin, self-assemble for Tetramodal Imaging and Synergistic Photothermal/Photodynamic Therapy Localized and synergistic phototherapy shows complete tumor eradication with no recurrence or long-term toxicity.	Photodynamic therapy PET, fluorescence, Cerenkov Luminescence and Cerenkov Radiation Energy Transfer-based imaging, and, photothermal/photodynamic therapy Activation of TCPP and doxorubicin	IVIS Spectrum	Goel et al. (2018) [24]
32	68Ga-labeled bovine serum albumin (68Ga-BSA) and dextran-modified TiO2 nanoparticles (D-TiO2 NPs) H = from 73.2 to 83.2 nm	68Ga, 18F	Separated	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Murine breast cancer (4T1)	68Ga is a more potent radionuclide than 18F for CR-induced PDT. The tumor volumes in mice treated by 68Ga-BSA and D-TiO2 NPs were significantly inhibited, whereas no significant difference in tumor volumes was found between the control group and other treatment groups.	Photodynamic therapy PET/CT validation		Duan et al. (2018) [37]
33	PEGylated crushed gold shell-radioactive iodide-124-labeled gold core nanoballs (PEG-124I-Au@AuCBs) C = 20 nm	124I	Bound	In vivo, in vitro, ex vivo Murine breast cancer (4T1)	PEG-124I-Au@AuCBs showed high stability and sensitivity in various pH solutions, serum, and in vivo conditions. Combined PET/CLI clearly revealed tumor lesions at 1 h after injection of particles, and both signals remained visible in tumor lesions at 24 h.	PET validation	IVIS Lumina III	Lee et al. (2018) [38]
34	Amorphous silica NP (SNP) H = 163.7 ± 4.8 nm TiO2 H = 12.8 ± 1.5 nm, HfO2 H = 34.9 ± 0.7 nm, Eu2O3 H = 134 ± 18 nm Gd2O3 H = 75.7 ± 6.8 nm YAG:Ce H = 36.6 ± 4.0 nm Bi2O3 H = 201.2 ± 4.4 nm AuNP H = 85.8 ± 0.009 nm	3H, 35S, 177Lu, 32P, 18F, 89Zr, 68Ga, 90Y 99mTc	Separated	In vitro, in vivo	β-scintillation contributes appreciably to excitation and reactivity in certain nanoparticle systems. The excitation by radionuclides of nanoparticles composed of large atomic number atoms generates X-rays, enabling multiplexed imaging through single photon emission computed tomography. Optical imaging and therapy using radionuclides with emission energies below the Cerenkov threshold are feasible, thereby expanding the list of applicable radionuclides.	SPECT/CT validation	IVIS Spectrum	Pratt et al. (2018) [25]
35	Magnetic nanoparticle(Zn0.4Mn0.6) Fe2O4 s (MNPs) with 89Zr radiolabeling and porphyrin molecules (TCPP) surface modification (89Zr-MNP/TCPP) C = 20 nm	89Zr	Bound	In vivo, in vitro, ex-vivo Murine breast cancer (4T1)	In vivo biodistribution of the 89Zr-MNP/TCPP imaging (FL), Cerenkov luminescence (CL) and CRET Imaging. High NPs tumor accumulation in the presence of an external magnetic field. The intensity spectrum of 89Zr-MNP/TCPP was completely different from that of free 89Zr and exhibited much stronger emission at a long wavelength, i.e., from 600 to 800 nm, reaching the maximum at around 660 nm.	Photodynamic therapy PET confirmation	IVIS system	Ni et al. (2018) [41]
36	Y2O3:Eu3+ rare earth nanoparticles (RENPS) C = 51.5 ± 7.5 nm	68Ga	Separated	In vitro.	Enhanced CL penetration and intensity (over 3 times better) by using Y2O3:Eu3+ RENPs. 3D reconstruction method which is able to acquire more accurate spatial information in vivo, as well as some quantitative information.	PET/CT validation	IVIS Kinetic	Gao et al. (2018) [59]
37	Gold nanoparticles C = 15 nm	Electron pulse	Separated	In vitro. No imaging	Cerenkov absorption spectrum in water with different gold nanoparticle concentrations			Ghandi et al. (2018) [60]
38	188Re-liposome H = 74.2 ± 9.1 nm	188Re	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo Human hypopharyngeal carcinoma cells (FaDu) Human tongue carcinoma (SAS) Human oral squamous carcinoma (OECM-1)	CLI demonstrate an increased accumulation of 188Re-liposome in the tumor lesion of nude mice with repeated doses compared to a single dose.		IVIS 50	Chang et al. (2018) [28]
39	Radioiodine-labelled melanin nanoparticles (MNP–Ag–131I) C = 6 nm H = 12 nm	131I	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo Human prostate carcinoma (PC3)	Synthesis of MNP–Ag–131I for therapeutic purposes which can be used for both single-photon emission computed tomography and Cherenkov radiation imaging. The beta rays of 131I make it a good candidate as a cancer cell killer.	MNP used as a platform for SPECT and CLI for accurate localization in brachytherapy.	IVIS Spectrum	Sheng et al. (2020) [61]
40	PEGylated crushed gold shell @ radioiodine-labeled core nanoparticles (PEG-124I-Au@AuCBs) C = 20 nm	124I	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo.	PEG-124I-Au@AuCBs are promising lymphatic tracers for dual imaging PET/CLI. NPs allowed for high-sensitivity detection of SLNs within 1 h postinjection, and their accumulation persisted until 24 h in a clinical application under intraoperative conditions.	PET/CT validation	IVIS Lumina III	Lee et al. (2019) [22]
41	TiO2 nanoparticles coated with the glycoprotein transferrin (Tf) (Tf/TiO2) C = 25 ± 3.2 nm	18F	Separated	In vitro. No imaging Human multiple myeloma (MM1.S) and human fibrosarcoma (HT1080)	The use of an electrospray system is efficient for coating the protein transferrin (Tf) on the surface of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles in a single step. Tf/TiO2 nanoparticles improved cell killing for MM1.S multiple myeloma cells from 23% to 57%, compared to Tf/TiO2 nanoparticles prepared using conventional functionalization methods.	Cerenkov Radiation Induced Cancer Therapy		Reed et al. (2019) [44]
42	TiO2 nanoparticles	18F	Separated	No imaging	Mathematic model that integrates Cerenkov physics, light interaction with matter, and photocatalytic reaction engineering. The model investigates the concentration of TiO2 nanoparticles and the activity of the radionuclide 18F-FDG on the number of photons and ROS generation. The model can be used for other radionuclides and nanoparticles, and can provide guidance on the concentration and size of TiO2 nanoparticles and the radionuclide activity needed for efficient cancer therapy.	Theoretical investigation Validation with comparison to experimental reports in the literature		Kavadiya et al. (2019) [62]
43	Europium nanoparticles Microspheres	X ray from LINAC	Separated		New methodological approach to reconstruct Cherenkov excited luminescence intensity distributions starting from a three-dimensional dataset. The method makes it possible to visualize and localize luminescence/fluorescence tagged vasculature, lymph nodes, or superficial tagged regions with most dynamic treatment plans.	Cherenkov excited luminescence scanning imaging (CELSI)	ICCD Princeton Instruments	Jia et al. (2019) [63]
44	Silica nanoparticles (Plus-NPs) H = 25 nm	32P	Separated	In vitro	Synthesized pluronic–silica nanoparticles doped with five different dyes that were chosen to efficiently absorb CR in all the visible ranges and to efficiently funnel the excitation energy toward the lowest energy dye, a Cy7 derivative, presenting a fluorescence emission in the near-infrared region (NIR).		IVIS Spectrum	Genovese et al. (2020) [26]
45	Chelate-Free Radiolabeling and Transferrin coating of TiO2 NPs (89Zr -TiO2- Tf NPs)	89Zr	Bound	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Multiple myeloma (MM1.S)	Design of a theranostic nanoplatform (89Zr -TiO2-Tf NPs) for targeting bone marrow, imaging the distribution of NPs, and stimulating ROS generation for cell killing. Single dose of NPs inhibited cancer growth	Photodynamic therapy PET/CT imaging	IVIS Lumina	Tang et al. (2020) [64]
46	Persistent Luminescent ZnGa2O4:Cr3+, NPs (ZGCs) C = 60–80 nm	18F	Separated	In vitro, in vivo, ex vivo. Murine breast cancer (4T1)	18F can efficiently excite ZGCs Nanoparticles for both fluorescence and afterglow luminescence via Cerenkov resonance energy transfer, as well as ionizing radiation.	PET imaging	IVIS Lumina	Liu et al. (2020) 35]