Table 1.

Comparison of Plant and Bacterial Cellulose.

Characteristics	Bacterial Cellulose	Plant Cellulose
Derivative	Genera Agrobacterium, and Gluconacetobacter, Sarcina [19]	Cotton, wood, bast fibers, seed fibers, leaf fibers, fruit fibers, stalk fibers, vegetable fibers and skin [5]
Purity	Pure by nature [16]	Impurities available. Presence of lignin, ash, pectin and hemicellulose [19,20]
Tensile strength	200–300 MPa [22]	750–1080 MPa of native PC with a density of 1450–1590 kg·m−23 [27]
Thermal stability	Transition = 191 °C and Decomposition = 0 °C − 250 °C [16,27,28,29]	Initial decomposition = 299 °C; maximum decomposition = 328 °C; final decomposition = 345 °C for regenerated PC [29]
Crystallinity	High. 84–89% [17,27,28,29]	Low. 40–60% for native PC [30]
Toxicity	Absence of cytotoxic effect on MDA-MB-231 [31] similarly, the absence of cytotoxic has seen in L929 fibroblast and osteoblast cell with a grading of 0–1 [32]	Slight cytotoxicity on nanocellulose was observed on HEK 293, causing the rupture of the membrane. Similarly, Cytotoxic was reported when 0.25–5 mg/mL cultured on bronchial cells (BEAS 2B) [33] Absence of cytotoxic effects on V79 was seen on nanocrystalline cellulose [34]
Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR)	High WVTR. Hydrated BC biofilm exhibits 2900 gm−2 day−1 [35]	High WVTR. 234 g/m2 day for nanocellulose film thickness with 42 µm [36]
Malleability	High. Due to the large elastic modulus [37,38], can virtually be shaped in any desired form [39]	Low. Arrangement of microfibrils in the mesh of crisscrossed form gives shape to the lignocellulose in the early stage itself [40]
Optimum pH	5.4–6.3. This influences the O2 uptake and growth rate [41]	Non-Applicable
Porosity	High. Appears with a uniform distribution of pore size [42]	Low. Due to the fewer and little space between the fibrils of nano fibrillated of native cellulose [43]
Pore size	10 to 300 nm [37]	1 to 100 nm [44]
Hydrophilicity	High, due to the presence of the hydroxyl group with a high density on the surface of BC. Meantime, extensive H2 bonding of chains and crystalline structure enhance hydrophobic interactions thereby contributing to amphiphilic characteristics of the BC [45,46,47,48]	Moderate. The free hydroxyl group exists in the amorphous structure of PC, which enhances the H2 bond formation; making it harder for fibers of cellulose to dissolve in water. As a result, only swelling of the fibers occurs. This moisture persists in the H2 bond making it less hydrophilic on cotton cellulose [21]
Oxygen barrier	Strong. Addition of PLA to the BC act as excellent O2 barrier up to 70% of relative humidity [49,50]	Strong. Due to the presence of small and consistent dimension of nanofibrils on nanocellulose [36]
Immune response	Mild resolves on its own by a maximum of 30th day with an absence of inflammatory signs [51,52]	Mild, which resolves on its own over time. Immune tolerance due to the presence of high crystallinity on native PC [33,53]
Antimicrobial	Absent in native BC. However the integration of BC with AgNP shows effective antimicrobial agents against Escherichia coli [54], Staphylococcus aureus [55] and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [56]. Apart from this, incorporation of BC with fusidic acid, tetracycline, amoxicillin, erythromycin, povidone-iodine, octenidine dihydrochloride, polyhexanide, benzalkonium chloride, laccase and quaternary ammonium compounds effective in promoting antimicrobial property [35]	Absent in native PC. Yet, PC despite its source of derivative incorporated with lysozyme and allicin effective antimicrobial agent against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans [57]
Hemostatic agent	BC membrane derived from Komagataeibacter species that has been oxidized with tetramethyllpiperidine-1-oxyl shows hemostatic effects [58]	Plant-derived sodium carboxy-methyl cellulose stimulates fibrin polymerization causing aggregation of fibrins at the wound site [59]. Oxidized regenerated cellulose serves as a platform for platelet aggregation [60]. Regenerated cotton cellulose has the capability to control bleeding at the injury site [61]
Biodegradability	Slow. Animal cells are unable to cleave into β-1→4. Yet, degradation is only possible with non-enzymatic hydrolysis [39] and acid solution [62]	Slow. Due to the complicated ribbon structure arrangement and presence of impurities on nanocellulose [61,63]. A longer duration is needed to hydrolyze native PC with alkali solution [62]
Stability	High. Due to low degradation [39]	High. Due to the dense hydrogen bond in the ribbon structure arrangements of native cellulose [64]
Biocompatibility	Native BC supports human cell growth. >70% proliferation of L929 fibroblast and osteoblast cell upon being seeded on BC film [32]	Infiltration of blood vessels and infiltration of fibroblast cell was seen in native PC scaffold upon implantation, indicating bio-compatibility in the human cell [65]
Cell adhesion	Improvement of the affinity of cells towards BC is possible with the addition of nitrogen plasma. With this >95% aggregation of cells is seen [66]	Presence of hydroxyl group and specialized binding components allows site for cell adhesion in PC despite of its source of derivatives or modifications [67]
Tissue regeneration	BC incorporated with resveratrol promotes re-epithelization [68] while native BC can be utilized for tissue regeneration [49,69,70], bone tissue regeneration [50,71] and cartilage tissue [72]	Native cellulose, nanocellulose, and sodium carboxy-methyl cellulose support regeneration of tissue [53,65,73,74] and bone [75]