Table 4.
Type | Pathogen | Species | Dates Sampled | Test Used | Number Tested | County or Region | Prevalence % (95% CI) † | Quality | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Virus | Middle Eastern respiratory coronavirus (MERS-CoV) | Camel | 1992–2013 | Recombinant MERS-CoV spike protein subunit 1-based ELISA (rELISA) described by Memish et al., 2014 [109] | 162 | North-eastern region | 56.2 | Medium | [34] |
154 | Eastern region | 17–100 | |||||||
458 | Rift Valley region | 0–18 | |||||||
Camels | 2013 | Spike protein subunit 1 protein microarray [110,111] | 335 | Laikipia county | 46.9 | Medium | [35] | ||
Camels | 2013 | AntiMERS-CoV Camel IgG ELISA kit (EUROIMMUN AG, Lübeck, Germany) | 879 | Marsabit county | 90 (95% CI 88–92) | Good | [33] | ||
Humans | AntiMERS-CoV Camel IgG ELISA kit (EUROIMMUN AG, Lübeck, Germany) followed by plaque reduction neutralisation test (PRNT) [112] | 760 | Marsabit county | 0 | |||||
Humans | 2013–2014 | rELISA (EUROIMMUN AG, Lübeck, Germany) followed by PRNT [112] | 559 | Garissa county | 0 | Good | [32] | ||
563 | Tana River county | 0.36 | |||||||
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus | Camels | 1986–1987 | Agar gel diffusion (AGD) test [113] | 499 | Not specified | 26 | Medium | [45] | |
Contagious ecthyma | Camels | Not specified | Clinical examination and electron microscopy | 600 | Turkana | 11.2 | Medium | [46] | |
Rift Valley fever virus | Camels | 2006–2007 (epidemic period) | In-house IgG ELISA [114] | 110 | Not specified | 20.9 | Medium | [36] | |
Camels | 2000 (pre-epidemic period) | In-house inhibition ELISA [115] | 15 | Galana county | 6.7 | Medium | [37] | ||
13 | Garissa county | 7.7 | |||||||
2007 (epidemic period) | 28 | Isiolo county | 57.1 | ||||||
Camelpox | Camels | 1992 | Clinical examination, electron microscopy, virus neutralisation | 1000 | Samburu county | 27 | Medium | [40] | |
1200 | Turkana county | 6 | |||||||
Influenza D virus (IDV) | Camels | 2015 | Hemagglutination inhibition (HI), post-ICV hemadsorption | 293 | Not specified | 8.2 | Medium | [49] | |
Influenza C virus (ICV) | Camels | 2015 | HI, post-IDV hemadsorption | 293 | Not specified | 10.6 | Medium | [49] | |
Bacteria | Brucella spp. | Camels | Not specified | Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) | 174 | Warir, Garissa and Mandera counties | 4.6 | Medium | [59] |
Serum agglutination test (SAT) | 10.34 | ||||||||
Complement fixation test (CFT) | 9.77 | ||||||||
Camels | 2013 | Brucella-Ab C-ELISA kit (SVANOVIR, Uppsala, Sweden) | 1605 | Marsabit county | 11.1 (95% CI 9.4–15.0) | Good | [108] | ||
Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) | Camels | 2011 | ELISA CHEKIT Q fever test kit (IDEXX, Westbrook, ME, USA | 72 | Laikipia county | Adults (3–9 years) 46 Young (<6 m) 5 |
Medium | [50] | |
Camels | 2013 | ELISA CHEKIT Q fever test kit (IDEXX, Hoofddorp, The Netherlands) | 334 | Laikipia county | 19 | Medium | [51] | ||
Dermatophilus congolensis | Camels | 1993 | Clinical examination and bacterial isolation | 3200 | Samburu county | Wet season, 20.9 Dry season, 13.6 |
Medium | [53] | |
600 | Laikipia county | Wet season, 22.7 Dry season, 14.3 |
|||||||
Parasites | Echinococcus spp. | Camels | 1998–2000 | Post-mortem examinations | 70 | Turkana county | 60.1 | Medium | [102] |
Camels | 2013 | Post-mortem examination and RFLP-PCR [98] | 219 | Meru and Isiolo counties | 6.94 | Medium | [98] | ||
Trypanosoma spp. | Camels | 1996–1997 | Haematocrit centrifugation technique (HCT) Mouse inoculation test (MIT) Suratex® latex agglutination test (Brentec Diagnostics, Nairobi, Kenya) [71] |
103 | Athi River (Machakos county) | 2.9 (95% CI 0–6.2) | Medium | [73] | |
749 | Isiolo county | 25.4 (95% CI 22.3–28.5) | |||||||
86 | Mugwoni (Laikipia county) | 18.6 (95% CI 10.4–26.8) | |||||||
Camels | Not specified | Phase contrast buffy coat technique (BCT) MIT |
347 | Kajiado county | 33.8 | Medium | [10] |
† 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) only reproduced here if reported in the original study.